Merge branch 'master' of github.com:Miltonbhowmick/Python

.coveragerc

@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
-[report]
-sort = Cover
-omit =
-    .env/*

.devcontainer/Dockerfile

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+# https://github.com/microsoft/vscode-dev-containers/blob/main/containers/python-3/README.md
+ARG VARIANT=3.11-bookworm
+FROM mcr.microsoft.com/vscode/devcontainers/python:${VARIANT}
+COPY requirements.txt /tmp/pip-tmp/
+RUN python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip \
+  && python3 -m pip install --no-cache-dir install -r /tmp/pip-tmp/requirements.txt \
+  && pipx install pre-commit ruff \
+  && pre-commit install

.devcontainer/devcontainer.json

@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+{
+	"name": "Python 3",
+	"build": {
+		"dockerfile": "Dockerfile",
+		"context": "..",
+		"args": {
+			// Update 'VARIANT' to pick a Python version: 3, 3.10, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6
+			// Append -bullseye or -buster to pin to an OS version.
+			// Use -bullseye variants on local on arm64/Apple Silicon.
+			"VARIANT": "3.11-bookworm",
+		}
+	},
+
+	// Configure tool-specific properties.
+	"customizations": {
+		// Configure properties specific to VS Code.
+		"vscode": {
+			// Set *default* container specific settings.json values on container create.
+			"settings": {
+				"python.defaultInterpreterPath": "/usr/local/bin/python",
+				"python.linting.enabled": true,
+				"python.formatting.blackPath": "/usr/local/py-utils/bin/black",
+				"python.linting.mypyPath": "/usr/local/py-utils/bin/mypy"
+			},
+
+			// Add the IDs of extensions you want installed when the container is created.
+			"extensions": [
+				"ms-python.python",
+				"ms-python.vscode-pylance"
+			]
+		}
+	},
+
+	// Use 'forwardPorts' to make a list of ports inside the container available locally.
+	// "forwardPorts": [],
+
+	// Use 'postCreateCommand' to run commands after the container is created.
+	// "postCreateCommand": "pip3 install --user -r requirements.txt",
+
+	// Comment out to connect as root instead. More info: https://aka.ms/vscode-remote/containers/non-root.
+	"remoteUser": "vscode"
+}

.github/CODEOWNERS

@@ -31,11 +31,11 @@
 
 # /data_structures/  @cclauss  # TODO: Uncomment this line after Hacktoberfest
 
-/digital_image_processing/ @mateuszz0000
+# /digital_image_processing/
 
 # /divide_and_conquer/
 
-/dynamic_programming/ @Kush1101
+# /dynamic_programming/
 
 # /file_transfer/
 
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@
 
 # /machine_learning/
 
-/maths/ @Kush1101
+# /maths/
 
 # /matrix/
 
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@
 
 # /other/  @cclauss  # TODO: Uncomment this line after Hacktoberfest
 
-/project_euler/  @dhruvmanila @Kush1101
+/project_euler/  @dhruvmanila
 
 # /quantum/
 
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@
 
 # /searches/
 
-/sorts/ @mateuszz0000
+# /sorts/
 
 # /strings/  @cclauss  # TODO: Uncomment this line after Hacktoberfest
 

.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.yml

@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+name: Bug report
+description: Create a bug report to help us address errors in the repository
+labels: [bug]
+body:
+  - type: markdown
+    attributes:
+      value: >
+        Before requesting please search [existing issues](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python/labels/bug).
+        Usage questions such as "How do I...?"  belong on the
+        [Discord](https://discord.gg/c7MnfGFGa6) and will be closed.
+
+  - type: input
+    attributes:
+      label: "Repository commit"
+      description: >
+        The commit hash for `TheAlgorithms/Python` repository. You can get this
+        by running the command `git rev-parse HEAD` locally.
+      placeholder: "a0b0f414ae134aa1772d33bb930e5a960f9979e8"
+    validations:
+      required: true
+
+  - type: input
+    attributes:
+      label: "Python version (python --version)"
+      placeholder: "Python 3.10.7"
+    validations:
+      required: true
+
+  - type: textarea
+    attributes:
+      label: "Dependencies version (pip freeze)"
+      description: >
+        This is the output of the command `pip freeze --all`. Note that the
+        actual output might be different as compared to the placeholder text.
+      placeholder: |
+        appnope==0.1.3
+        asttokens==2.0.8
+        backcall==0.2.0
+        ...
+    validations:
+      required: true
+
+  - type: textarea
+    attributes:
+      label: "Expected behavior"
+      description: "Describe the behavior you expect. May include images or videos."
+    validations:
+      required: true
+
+  - type: textarea
+    attributes:
+      label: "Actual behavior"
+    validations:
+      required: true

.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/config.yml

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+blank_issues_enabled: false
+contact_links:
+  - name: Discord community
+    url: https://discord.gg/c7MnfGFGa6
+    about: Have any questions or need any help? Please contact us via Discord

.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature_request.yml

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+name: Feature request
+description: Suggest features, propose improvements, discuss new ideas.
+labels: [enhancement]
+body:
+  - type: markdown
+    attributes:
+      value: >
+        Before requesting please search [existing issues](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python/labels/enhancement).
+        Usage questions such as "How do I...?"  belong on the
+        [Discord](https://discord.gg/c7MnfGFGa6) and will be closed.
+
+  - type: textarea
+    attributes:
+      label: "Feature description"
+      description: >
+        This could be new algorithms, data structures or improving any existing
+        implementations.
+    validations:
+      required: true

.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/other.yml

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+name: Other
+description: Use this for any other issues. PLEASE do not create blank issues
+labels: ["awaiting triage"]
+body:
+  - type: textarea
+    id: issuedescription
+    attributes:
+      label: What would you like to share?
+      description: Provide a clear and concise explanation of your issue.
+    validations:
+      required: true
+
+  - type: textarea
+    id: extrainfo
+    attributes:
+      label: Additional information
+      description: Is there anything else we should know about this issue?
+    validations:
+      required: false

.github/pull_request_template.md

@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-### **Describe your change:**
+### Describe your change:
 
 
 
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 * [ ] Fix a bug or typo in an existing algorithm?
 * [ ] Documentation change?
 
-### **Checklist:**
+### Checklist:
 * [ ] I have read [CONTRIBUTING.md](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python/blob/master/CONTRIBUTING.md).
 * [ ] This pull request is all my own work -- I have not plagiarized.
 * [ ] I know that pull requests will not be merged if they fail the automated tests.
@@ -16,5 +16,5 @@
 * [ ] All functions and variable names follow Python naming conventions.
 * [ ] All function parameters and return values are annotated with Python [type hints](https://docs.python.org/3/library/typing.html).
 * [ ] All functions have [doctests](https://docs.python.org/3/library/doctest.html) that pass the automated testing.
-* [ ] All new algorithms have a URL in its comments that points to Wikipedia or other similar explanation.
-* [ ] If this pull request resolves one or more open issues then the commit message contains `Fixes: #{$ISSUE_NO}`.
+* [ ] All new algorithms include at least one URL that points to Wikipedia or another similar explanation.
+* [ ] If this pull request resolves one or more open issues then the description above includes the issue number(s) with a [closing keyword](https://docs.github.com/en/issues/tracking-your-work-with-issues/linking-a-pull-request-to-an-issue): "Fixes #ISSUE-NUMBER".

.github/stale.yml

@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ pulls:
   closeComment: >
     Please reopen this pull request once you commit the changes requested
     or make improvements on the code. If this is not the case and you need
-    some help, feel free to seek help from our [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms)
+    some help, feel free to seek help from our [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms/community)
     or ping one of the reviewers. Thank you for your contributions!
 
 issues:
@@ -59,5 +59,5 @@ issues:
   closeComment: >
     Please reopen this issue once you add more information and updates here.
     If this is not the case and you need some help, feel free to seek help
-    from our [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms) or ping one of the
+    from our [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms/community) or ping one of the
     reviewers. Thank you for your contributions!

.github/workflows/build.yml

@@ -9,20 +9,25 @@ jobs:
   build:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v2
-      - uses: actions/setup-python@v2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v3
+      - uses: actions/setup-python@v4
         with:
-          python-version: "3.9"
-      - uses: actions/cache@v2
+          python-version: 3.11
+      - uses: actions/cache@v3
         with:
           path: ~/.cache/pip
           key: ${{ runner.os }}-pip-${{ hashFiles('requirements.txt') }}
       - name: Install dependencies
         run: |
           python -m pip install --upgrade pip setuptools six wheel
-          python -m pip install mypy pytest-cov -r requirements.txt
-      - run: mypy .
+          python -m pip install pytest-cov -r requirements.txt
       - name: Run tests
-        run: pytest --doctest-modules --ignore=project_euler/ --ignore=scripts/ --cov-report=term-missing:skip-covered --cov=. .
+        # TODO: #8818 Re-enable quantum tests
+        run: pytest
+            --ignore=quantum/q_fourier_transform.py
+            --ignore=project_euler/
+            --ignore=scripts/validate_solutions.py
+            --cov-report=term-missing:skip-covered
+            --cov=. .
       - if: ${{ success() }}
         run: scripts/build_directory_md.py 2>&1 | tee DIRECTORY.md

.github/workflows/directory_writer.yml

@@ -6,8 +6,10 @@ jobs:
   build:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v1  # v1, NOT v2
-      - uses: actions/setup-python@v2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v1  # v1, NOT v2 or v3
+      - uses: actions/setup-python@v4
+        with:
+          python-version: 3.x
       - name: Write DIRECTORY.md
         run: |
           scripts/build_directory_md.py 2>&1 | tee DIRECTORY.md

.github/workflows/pre-commit.yml

@@ -1,22 +0,0 @@
-name: pre-commit
-
-on: [push, pull_request]
-
-jobs:
-  pre-commit:
-    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
-    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v2
-      - uses: actions/cache@v2
-        with:
-          path: |
-            ~/.cache/pre-commit
-            ~/.cache/pip
-          key: ${{ runner.os }}-pre-commit-${{ hashFiles('.pre-commit-config.yaml') }}
-      - uses: actions/setup-python@v2
-      - uses: psf/black@21.4b0
-      - name: Install pre-commit
-        run: |
-          python -m pip install --upgrade pip
-          python -m pip install --upgrade pre-commit
-      - run: pre-commit run --verbose --all-files --show-diff-on-failure

.github/workflows/project_euler.yml

@@ -14,8 +14,10 @@ jobs:
   project-euler:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v2
-      - uses: actions/setup-python@v2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v3
+      - uses: actions/setup-python@v4
+        with:
+          python-version: 3.x
       - name: Install pytest and pytest-cov
         run: |
           python -m pip install --upgrade pip
@@ -24,8 +26,10 @@ jobs:
   validate-solutions:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v2
-      - uses: actions/setup-python@v2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v3
+      - uses: actions/setup-python@v4
+        with:
+          python-version: 3.x
       - name: Install pytest and requests
         run: |
           python -m pip install --upgrade pip

.github/workflows/ruff.yml

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+# https://beta.ruff.rs
+name: ruff
+on:
+  push:
+    branches:
+      - master
+  pull_request:
+    branches:
+      - master
+jobs:
+  ruff:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+    - uses: actions/checkout@v3
+    - run: pip install --user ruff
+    - run: ruff --format=github .

.gitignore

@@ -107,3 +107,4 @@ venv.bak/
 .idea
 .try
 .vscode/
+.vs/

.pre-commit-config.yaml

@@ -1,56 +1,42 @@
 repos:
   - repo: https://github.com/pre-commit/pre-commit-hooks
-    rev: v3.4.0
+    rev: v4.4.0
     hooks:
       - id: check-executables-have-shebangs
+      - id: check-toml
       - id: check-yaml
       - id: end-of-file-fixer
         types: [python]
       - id: trailing-whitespace
-        exclude: |
-          (?x)^(
-            data_structures/heap/binomial_heap.py
-          )$
       - id: requirements-txt-fixer
+
+  - repo: https://github.com/MarcoGorelli/auto-walrus
+    rev: v0.2.2
+    hooks:
+    -   id: auto-walrus
+
+  - repo: https://github.com/astral-sh/ruff-pre-commit
+    rev: v0.0.281
+    hooks:
+      - id: ruff
+
   - repo: https://github.com/psf/black
-    rev: 21.4b0
+    rev: 23.7.0
     hooks:
       - id: black
-  - repo: https://github.com/PyCQA/isort
-    rev: 5.8.0
-    hooks:
-      - id: isort
-        args:
-          - --profile=black
-  - repo: https://gitlab.com/pycqa/flake8
-    rev: 3.9.1
-    hooks:
-      - id: flake8
-        args:
-          - --ignore=E203,W503
-          - --max-complexity=25
-          - --max-line-length=88
-#     FIXME: fix mypy errors and then uncomment this
-#    - repo: https://github.com/pre-commit/mirrors-mypy
-#      rev: v0.782
-#      hooks:
-#        - id: mypy
-#          args:
-#            - --ignore-missing-imports
+
   - repo: https://github.com/codespell-project/codespell
-    rev: v2.0.0
+    rev: v2.2.5
     hooks:
       - id: codespell
-        args:
-          - --ignore-words-list=ans,crate,fo,followings,hist,iff,mater,secant,som,tim
-          - --skip="./.*,./strings/dictionary.txt,./strings/words.txt,./project_euler/problem_022/p022_names.txt"
-          - --quiet-level=2
-        exclude: |
-          (?x)^(
-              strings/dictionary.txt |
-              strings/words.txt |
-              project_euler/problem_022/p022_names.txt
-          )$
+        additional_dependencies:
+          - tomli
+
+  - repo: https://github.com/tox-dev/pyproject-fmt
+    rev: "0.13.0"
+    hooks:
+      - id: pyproject-fmt
+
   - repo: local
     hooks:
       - id: validate-filenames
@@ -58,3 +44,18 @@ repos:
         entry: ./scripts/validate_filenames.py
         language: script
         pass_filenames: false
+
+  - repo: https://github.com/abravalheri/validate-pyproject
+    rev: v0.13
+    hooks:
+      - id: validate-pyproject
+
+  - repo: https://github.com/pre-commit/mirrors-mypy
+    rev: v1.4.1
+    hooks:
+      - id: mypy
+        args:
+          - --ignore-missing-imports
+          - --install-types # See mirrors-mypy README.md
+          - --non-interactive
+        additional_dependencies: [types-requests]

.vscode/settings.json

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{
+    "githubPullRequests.ignoredPullRequestBranches": [
+        "master"
+    ]
+}

CONTRIBUTING.md

@@ -2,18 +2,18 @@
 
 ## Before contributing
 
-Welcome to [TheAlgorithms/Python](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python)! Before sending your pull requests, make sure that you __read the whole guidelines__. If you have any doubt on the contributing guide, please feel free to [state it clearly in an issue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python/issues/new) or ask the community in [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms).
+Welcome to [TheAlgorithms/Python](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python)! Before sending your pull requests, make sure that you __read the whole guidelines__. If you have any doubt on the contributing guide, please feel free to [state it clearly in an issue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python/issues/new) or ask the community in [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms/community).
 
 ## Contributing
 
 ### Contributor
 
-We are very happy that you consider implementing algorithms and data structure for others! This repository is referenced and used by learners from all over the globe. Being one of our contributors, you agree and confirm that:
+We are very happy that you are considering implementing algorithms and data structures for others! This repository is referenced and used by learners from all over the globe. Being one of our contributors, you agree and confirm that:
 
 - You did your work - no plagiarism allowed
   - Any plagiarized work will not be merged.
 - Your work will be distributed under [MIT License](LICENSE.md) once your pull request is merged
-- You submitted work fulfils or mostly fulfils our styles and standards
+- Your submitted work fulfils or mostly fulfils our styles and standards
 
 __New implementation__ is welcome! For example, new solutions for a problem, different representations for a graph data structure or algorithm designs with different complexity but __identical implementation__ of an existing implementation is not allowed. Please check whether the solution is already implemented or not before submitting your pull request.
 
@@ -23,9 +23,16 @@ __Improving comments__ and __writing proper tests__ are also highly welcome.
 
 We appreciate any contribution, from fixing a grammar mistake in a comment to implementing complex algorithms. Please read this section if you are contributing your work.
 
-Your contribution will be tested by our [automated testing on Travis CI](https://travis-ci.org/TheAlgorithms/Python/pull_requests) to save time and mental energy.  After you have submitted your pull request, you should see the Travis tests start to run at the bottom of your submission page.  If those tests fail, then click on the ___details___ button try to read through the Travis output to understand the failure.  If you do not understand, please leave a comment on your submission page and a community member will try to help.
+Your contribution will be tested by our [automated testing on GitHub Actions](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python/actions) to save time and mental energy.  After you have submitted your pull request, you should see the GitHub Actions tests start to run at the bottom of your submission page.  If those tests fail, then click on the ___details___ button try to read through the GitHub Actions output to understand the failure.  If you do not understand, please leave a comment on your submission page and a community member will try to help.
 
-Please help us keep our issue list small by adding fixes: #{$ISSUE_NO} to the commit message of pull requests that resolve open issues. GitHub will use this tag to auto close the issue when the PR is merged.
+If you are interested in resolving an [open issue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python/issues), simply make a pull request with your proposed fix. __We do not assign issues in this repo__ so please do not ask for permission to work on an issue.
+
+Please help us keep our issue list small by adding `Fixes #{$ISSUE_NUMBER}` to the description of pull requests that resolve open issues.
+For example, if your pull request fixes issue #10, then please add the following to its description:
+```
+Fixes #10
+```
+GitHub will use this tag to [auto-close the issue](https://docs.github.com/en/issues/tracking-your-work-with-issues/linking-a-pull-request-to-an-issue) if and when the PR is merged.
 
 #### What is an Algorithm?
 
@@ -53,7 +60,7 @@ Algorithms in this repo should not be how-to examples for existing Python packag
 Use [pre-commit](https://pre-commit.com/#installation) to automatically format your code to match our coding style:
 
 ```bash
-python3 -m pip install pre-commit  # required only once
+python3 -m pip install pre-commit  # only required the first time
 pre-commit install
 ```
 That's it! The plugin will run every time you commit any changes. If there are any errors found during the run, fix them and commit those changes. You can even run the plugin manually on all files:
@@ -66,8 +73,8 @@ pre-commit run --all-files --show-diff-on-failure
 
 We want your work to be readable by others; therefore, we encourage you to note the following:
 
-- Please write in Python 3.9+. For instance:  `print()` is a function in Python 3 so `print "Hello"` will *not* work but `print("Hello")` will.
-- Please focus hard on naming of functions, classes, and variables.  Help your reader by using __descriptive names__ that can help you to remove redundant comments.
+- Please write in Python 3.11+. For instance:  `print()` is a function in Python 3 so `print "Hello"` will *not* work but `print("Hello")` will.
+- Please focus hard on the naming of functions, classes, and variables.  Help your reader by using __descriptive names__ that can help you to remove redundant comments.
   - Single letter variable names are *old school* so please avoid them unless their life only spans a few lines.
   - Expand acronyms because `gcd()` is hard to understand but `greatest_common_divisor()` is not.
   - Please follow the [Python Naming Conventions](https://pep8.org/#prescriptive-naming-conventions) so variable_names and function_names should be lower_case, CONSTANTS in UPPERCASE, ClassNames should be CamelCase, etc.
@@ -81,11 +88,11 @@ We want your work to be readable by others; therefore, we encourage you to note
   black .
   ```
 
-- All submissions will need to pass the test `flake8 . --ignore=E203,W503 --max-line-length=88` before they will be accepted so if possible, try this test locally on your Python file(s) before submitting your pull request.
+- All submissions will need to pass the test `ruff .` before they will be accepted so if possible, try this test locally on your Python file(s) before submitting your pull request.
 
   ```bash
-  python3 -m pip install flake8  # only required the first time
-  flake8 . --ignore=E203,W503  --max-line-length=88 --show-source
+  python3 -m pip install ruff  # only required the first time
+  ruff .
   ```
 
 - Original code submission require docstrings or comments to describe your work.
@@ -102,7 +109,7 @@ We want your work to be readable by others; therefore, we encourage you to note
 
   This is too trivial. Comments are expected to be explanatory. For comments, you can write them above, on or below a line of code, as long as you are consistent within the same piece of code.
 
-  We encourage you to put docstrings inside your functions but please pay attention to indentation of docstrings. The following is a good example:
+  We encourage you to put docstrings inside your functions but please pay attention to the indentation of docstrings. The following is a good example:
 
   ```python
   def sum_ab(a, b):
@@ -160,7 +167,7 @@ We want your work to be readable by others; therefore, we encourage you to note
 - [__List comprehensions and generators__](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#list-comprehensions) are preferred over the use of `lambda`, `map`, `filter`, `reduce` but the important thing is to demonstrate the power of Python in code that is easy to read and maintain.
 
 - Avoid importing external libraries for basic algorithms. Only use those libraries for complicated algorithms.
-- If you need a third party module that is not in the file __requirements.txt__, please add it to that file as part of your submission.
+- If you need a third-party module that is not in the file __requirements.txt__, please add it to that file as part of your submission.
 
 #### Other Requirements for Submissions
 - If you are submitting code in the `project_euler/` directory, please also read [the dedicated Guideline](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python/blob/master/project_euler/README.md) before contributing to our Project Euler library.
@@ -170,13 +177,13 @@ We want your work to be readable by others; therefore, we encourage you to note
 - If possible, follow the standard *within* the folder you are submitting to.
 - If you have modified/added code work, make sure the code compiles before submitting.
 - If you have modified/added documentation work, ensure your language is concise and contains no grammar errors.
-- Do not update the README.md or DIRECTORY.md file which will be periodically autogenerated by our Travis CI processes.
+- Do not update the README.md or DIRECTORY.md file which will be periodically autogenerated by our GitHub Actions processes.
 - Add a corresponding explanation to [Algorithms-Explanation](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Algorithms-Explanation) (Optional but recommended).
-- All submissions will be tested with [__mypy__](http://www.mypy-lang.org) so we encourage to add [__Python type hints__](https://docs.python.org/3/library/typing.html) where it makes sense to do so.
+- All submissions will be tested with [__mypy__](http://www.mypy-lang.org) so we encourage you to add [__Python type hints__](https://docs.python.org/3/library/typing.html) where it makes sense to do so.
 
 - Most importantly,
   - __Be consistent in the use of these guidelines when submitting.__
-  - __Join__ [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms) __now!__
+  - __Join__ us on [Discord](https://discord.com/invite/c7MnfGFGa6) and [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms/community) __now!__
   - Happy coding!
 
 Writer [@poyea](https://github.com/poyea), Jun 2019.

LICENSE.md

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 MIT License
 
-Copyright (c) 2016-2021 The Algorithms
+Copyright (c) 2016-2022 TheAlgorithms and contributors
 
 Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
 of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal

README.md

@@ -1,28 +1,49 @@
-# The Algorithms - Python
-[![Gitpod Ready-to-Code](https://img.shields.io/badge/Gitpod-Ready--to--Code-blue?logo=gitpod&style=flat-square)](https://gitpod.io/#https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python) 
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-<!--[![Tested on Python 3.8](https://img.shields.io/badge/Tested%20-Python%203.8-blue.svg?logo=python&style=flat-square)](https://www.python.org/downloads) &nbsp;-->
+<div align="center">
+<!-- Title: -->
+  <a href="https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/">
+    <img src="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/TheAlgorithms/website/1cd824df116b27029f17c2d1b42d81731f28a920/public/logo.svg" height="100">
+  </a>
+  <h1><a href="https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/">The Algorithms</a> - Python</h1>
+<!-- Labels: -->
+  <!-- First row: -->
+  <a href="https://gitpod.io/#https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python">
+    <img src="https://img.shields.io/badge/Gitpod-Ready--to--Code-blue?logo=gitpod&style=flat-square" height="20" alt="Gitpod Ready-to-Code">
+  </a>
+  <a href="https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python/blob/master/CONTRIBUTING.md">
+    <img src="https://img.shields.io/static/v1.svg?label=Contributions&message=Welcome&color=0059b3&style=flat-square" height="20" alt="Contributions Welcome">
+  </a>
+  <img src="https://img.shields.io/github/repo-size/TheAlgorithms/Python.svg?label=Repo%20size&style=flat-square" height="20">
+  <a href="https://the-algorithms.com/discord">
+    <img src="https://img.shields.io/discord/808045925556682782.svg?logo=discord&colorB=7289DA&style=flat-square" height="20" alt="Discord chat">
+  </a>
+  <a href="https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms/community">
+    <img src="https://img.shields.io/badge/Chat-Gitter-ff69b4.svg?label=Chat&logo=gitter&style=flat-square" height="20" alt="Gitter chat">
+  </a>
+  <!-- Second row: -->
+  <br>
+  <a href="https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Python/actions">
+    <img src="https://img.shields.io/github/actions/workflow/status/TheAlgorithms/Python/build.yml?branch=master&label=CI&logo=github&style=flat-square" height="20" alt="GitHub Workflow Status">
+  </a>
+  <a href="https://github.com/pre-commit/pre-commit">
+    <img src="https://img.shields.io/badge/pre--commit-enabled-brightgreen?logo=pre-commit&logoColor=white&style=flat-square" height="20" alt="pre-commit">
+  </a>
+  <a href="https://github.com/psf/black">
+    <img src="https://img.shields.io/static/v1?label=code%20style&message=black&color=black&style=flat-square" height="20" alt="code style: black">
+  </a>
+<!-- Short description: -->
+  <h3>All algorithms implemented in Python - for education</h3>
+</div>
 
-### All algorithms implemented in Python (for education)
+Implementations are for learning purposes only. They may be less efficient than the implementations in the Python standard library. Use them at your discretion.
 
-These implementations are for learning purposes only. Therefore they may be less efficient than the implementations in the Python standard library.
+## Getting Started
 
-## Contribution Guidelines
+Read through our [Contribution Guidelines](CONTRIBUTING.md) before you contribute.
 
-Read our [Contribution Guidelines](CONTRIBUTING.md) before you contribute.
+## Community Channels
 
-## Community Channel
-
-We're on [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms)!  Please join us.
+We are on [Discord](https://the-algorithms.com/discord) and [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms/community)! Community channels are a great way for you to ask questions and get help. Please join us!
 
 ## List of Algorithms
 
-See our [directory](DIRECTORY.md).
+See our [directory](DIRECTORY.md) for easier navigation and a better overview of the project.

arithmetic_analysis/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# Arithmetic analysis
+
+Arithmetic analysis is a branch of mathematics that deals with solving linear equations.
+
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_equations>
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination>
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root-finding_algorithms>

arithmetic_analysis/bisection.py

@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-from typing import Callable
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 
 def bisection(function: Callable[[float], float], a: float, b: float) -> float:
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ def bisection(function: Callable[[float], float], a: float, b: float) -> float:
         raise ValueError("could not find root in given interval.")
     else:
         mid: float = start + (end - start) / 2.0
-        while abs(start - mid) > 10 ** -7:  # until precisely equals to 10^-7
+        while abs(start - mid) > 10**-7:  # until precisely equals to 10^-7
             if function(mid) == 0:
                 return mid
             elif function(mid) * function(start) < 0:
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ def bisection(function: Callable[[float], float], a: float, b: float) -> float:
 
 
 def f(x: float) -> float:
-    return x ** 3 - 2 * x - 5
+    return x**3 - 2 * x - 5
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":

arithmetic_analysis/gaussian_elimination.py

@@ -5,9 +5,13 @@ Gaussian elimination - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination
 
 
 import numpy as np
+from numpy import float64
+from numpy.typing import NDArray
 
 
-def retroactive_resolution(coefficients: np.matrix, vector: np.ndarray) -> np.ndarray:
+def retroactive_resolution(
+    coefficients: NDArray[float64], vector: NDArray[float64]
+) -> NDArray[float64]:
     """
     This function performs a retroactive linear system resolution
         for triangular matrix
@@ -27,18 +31,20 @@ def retroactive_resolution(coefficients: np.matrix, vector: np.ndarray) -> np.nd
 
     rows, columns = np.shape(coefficients)
 
-    x = np.zeros((rows, 1), dtype=float)
+    x: NDArray[float64] = np.zeros((rows, 1), dtype=float)
     for row in reversed(range(rows)):
-        sum = 0
+        total = 0
         for col in range(row + 1, columns):
-            sum += coefficients[row, col] * x[col]
+            total += coefficients[row, col] * x[col]
 
-        x[row, 0] = (vector[row] - sum) / coefficients[row, row]
+        x[row, 0] = (vector[row] - total) / coefficients[row, row]
 
     return x
 
 
-def gaussian_elimination(coefficients: np.matrix, vector: np.ndarray) -> np.ndarray:
+def gaussian_elimination(
+    coefficients: NDArray[float64], vector: NDArray[float64]
+) -> NDArray[float64]:
     """
     This function performs Gaussian elimination method
 
@@ -60,7 +66,7 @@ def gaussian_elimination(coefficients: np.matrix, vector: np.ndarray) -> np.ndar
         return np.array((), dtype=float)
 
     # augmented matrix
-    augmented_mat = np.concatenate((coefficients, vector), axis=1)
+    augmented_mat: NDArray[float64] = np.concatenate((coefficients, vector), axis=1)
     augmented_mat = augmented_mat.astype("float64")
 
     # scale the matrix leaving it triangular

arithmetic_analysis/in_static_equilibrium.py

@@ -1,21 +1,29 @@
 """
 Checks if a system of forces is in static equilibrium.
 """
-from typing import List
+from __future__ import annotations
 
-from numpy import array, cos, cross, ndarray, radians, sin
+from numpy import array, cos, cross, float64, radians, sin
+from numpy.typing import NDArray
 
 
 def polar_force(
     magnitude: float, angle: float, radian_mode: bool = False
-) -> List[float]:
+) -> list[float]:
     """
     Resolves force along rectangular components.
     (force, angle) => (force_x, force_y)
-    >>> polar_force(10, 45)
-    [7.0710678118654755, 7.071067811865475]
-    >>> polar_force(10, 3.14, radian_mode=True)
-    [-9.999987317275394, 0.01592652916486828]
+    >>> import math
+    >>> force = polar_force(10, 45)
+    >>> math.isclose(force[0], 7.071067811865477)
+    True
+    >>> math.isclose(force[1], 7.0710678118654755)
+    True
+    >>> force = polar_force(10, 3.14, radian_mode=True)
+    >>> math.isclose(force[0], -9.999987317275396)
+    True
+    >>> math.isclose(force[1], 0.01592652916486828)
+    True
     """
     if radian_mode:
         return [magnitude * cos(angle), magnitude * sin(angle)]
@@ -23,7 +31,7 @@ def polar_force(
 
 
 def in_static_equilibrium(
-    forces: ndarray, location: ndarray, eps: float = 10 ** -1
+    forces: NDArray[float64], location: NDArray[float64], eps: float = 10**-1
 ) -> bool:
     """
     Check if a system is in equilibrium.
@@ -42,7 +50,7 @@ def in_static_equilibrium(
     False
     """
     # summation of moments is zero
-    moments: ndarray = cross(location, forces)
+    moments: NDArray[float64] = cross(location, forces)
     sum_moments: float = sum(moments)
     return abs(sum_moments) < eps
 
@@ -50,10 +58,14 @@ def in_static_equilibrium(
 if __name__ == "__main__":
     # Test to check if it works
     forces = array(
-        [polar_force(718.4, 180 - 30), polar_force(879.54, 45), polar_force(100, -90)]
+        [
+            polar_force(718.4, 180 - 30),
+            polar_force(879.54, 45),
+            polar_force(100, -90),
+        ]
     )
 
-    location = array([[0, 0], [0, 0], [0, 0]])
+    location: NDArray[float64] = array([[0, 0], [0, 0], [0, 0]])
 
     assert in_static_equilibrium(forces, location)
 

arithmetic_analysis/intersection.py

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 import math
-from typing import Callable
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 
 def intersection(function: Callable[[float], float], x0: float, x1: float) -> float:
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ def intersection(function: Callable[[float], float], x0: float, x1: float) -> fl
         x_n2: float = x_n1 - (
             function(x_n1) / ((function(x_n1) - function(x_n)) / (x_n1 - x_n))
         )
-        if abs(x_n2 - x_n1) < 10 ** -5:
+        if abs(x_n2 - x_n1) < 10**-5:
             return x_n2
         x_n = x_n1
         x_n1 = x_n2

arithmetic_analysis/jacobi_iteration_method.py

@@ -0,0 +1,173 @@
+"""
+Jacobi Iteration Method - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobi_method
+"""
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import numpy as np
+from numpy import float64
+from numpy.typing import NDArray
+
+
+# Method to find solution of system of linear equations
+def jacobi_iteration_method(
+    coefficient_matrix: NDArray[float64],
+    constant_matrix: NDArray[float64],
+    init_val: list[int],
+    iterations: int,
+) -> list[float]:
+    """
+    Jacobi Iteration Method:
+    An iterative algorithm to determine the solutions of strictly diagonally dominant
+    system of linear equations
+
+    4x1 +  x2 +  x3 =  2
+     x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 = -6
+     x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = -4
+
+    x_init = [0.5, -0.5 , -0.5]
+
+    Examples:
+
+    >>> coefficient = np.array([[4, 1, 1], [1, 5, 2], [1, 2, 4]])
+    >>> constant = np.array([[2], [-6], [-4]])
+    >>> init_val = [0.5, -0.5, -0.5]
+    >>> iterations = 3
+    >>> jacobi_iteration_method(coefficient, constant, init_val, iterations)
+    [0.909375, -1.14375, -0.7484375]
+
+
+    >>> coefficient = np.array([[4, 1, 1], [1, 5, 2]])
+    >>> constant = np.array([[2], [-6], [-4]])
+    >>> init_val = [0.5, -0.5, -0.5]
+    >>> iterations = 3
+    >>> jacobi_iteration_method(coefficient, constant, init_val, iterations)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Coefficient matrix dimensions must be nxn but received 2x3
+
+    >>> coefficient = np.array([[4, 1, 1], [1, 5, 2], [1, 2, 4]])
+    >>> constant = np.array([[2], [-6]])
+    >>> init_val = [0.5, -0.5, -0.5]
+    >>> iterations = 3
+    >>> jacobi_iteration_method(
+    ...     coefficient, constant, init_val, iterations
+    ... )  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Coefficient and constant matrices dimensions must be nxn and nx1 but
+                received 3x3 and 2x1
+
+    >>> coefficient = np.array([[4, 1, 1], [1, 5, 2], [1, 2, 4]])
+    >>> constant = np.array([[2], [-6], [-4]])
+    >>> init_val = [0.5, -0.5]
+    >>> iterations = 3
+    >>> jacobi_iteration_method(
+    ...     coefficient, constant, init_val, iterations
+    ... )  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Number of initial values must be equal to number of rows in coefficient
+                matrix but received 2 and 3
+
+    >>> coefficient = np.array([[4, 1, 1], [1, 5, 2], [1, 2, 4]])
+    >>> constant = np.array([[2], [-6], [-4]])
+    >>> init_val = [0.5, -0.5, -0.5]
+    >>> iterations = 0
+    >>> jacobi_iteration_method(coefficient, constant, init_val, iterations)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Iterations must be at least 1
+    """
+
+    rows1, cols1 = coefficient_matrix.shape
+    rows2, cols2 = constant_matrix.shape
+
+    if rows1 != cols1:
+        msg = f"Coefficient matrix dimensions must be nxn but received {rows1}x{cols1}"
+        raise ValueError(msg)
+
+    if cols2 != 1:
+        msg = f"Constant matrix must be nx1 but received {rows2}x{cols2}"
+        raise ValueError(msg)
+
+    if rows1 != rows2:
+        msg = (
+            "Coefficient and constant matrices dimensions must be nxn and nx1 but "
+            f"received {rows1}x{cols1} and {rows2}x{cols2}"
+        )
+        raise ValueError(msg)
+
+    if len(init_val) != rows1:
+        msg = (
+            "Number of initial values must be equal to number of rows in coefficient "
+            f"matrix but received {len(init_val)} and {rows1}"
+        )
+        raise ValueError(msg)
+
+    if iterations <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("Iterations must be at least 1")
+
+    table: NDArray[float64] = np.concatenate(
+        (coefficient_matrix, constant_matrix), axis=1
+    )
+
+    rows, cols = table.shape
+
+    strictly_diagonally_dominant(table)
+
+    # Iterates the whole matrix for given number of times
+    for _ in range(iterations):
+        new_val = []
+        for row in range(rows):
+            temp = 0
+            for col in range(cols):
+                if col == row:
+                    denom = table[row][col]
+                elif col == cols - 1:
+                    val = table[row][col]
+                else:
+                    temp += (-1) * table[row][col] * init_val[col]
+            temp = (temp + val) / denom
+            new_val.append(temp)
+        init_val = new_val
+
+    return [float(i) for i in new_val]
+
+
+# Checks if the given matrix is strictly diagonally dominant
+def strictly_diagonally_dominant(table: NDArray[float64]) -> bool:
+    """
+    >>> table = np.array([[4, 1, 1, 2], [1, 5, 2, -6], [1, 2, 4, -4]])
+    >>> strictly_diagonally_dominant(table)
+    True
+
+    >>> table = np.array([[4, 1, 1, 2], [1, 5, 2, -6], [1, 2, 3, -4]])
+    >>> strictly_diagonally_dominant(table)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Coefficient matrix is not strictly diagonally dominant
+    """
+
+    rows, cols = table.shape
+
+    is_diagonally_dominant = True
+
+    for i in range(0, rows):
+        total = 0
+        for j in range(0, cols - 1):
+            if i == j:
+                continue
+            else:
+                total += table[i][j]
+
+        if table[i][i] <= total:
+            raise ValueError("Coefficient matrix is not strictly diagonally dominant")
+
+    return is_diagonally_dominant
+
+
+# Test Cases
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

arithmetic_analysis/lu_decomposition.py

@@ -1,58 +1,102 @@
-"""Lower-Upper (LU) Decomposition.
-
-Reference:
-- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LU_decomposition
 """
-from typing import Tuple
+Lower–upper (LU) decomposition factors a matrix as a product of a lower
+triangular matrix and an upper triangular matrix. A square matrix has an LU
+decomposition under the following conditions:
+    - If the matrix is invertible, then it has an LU decomposition if and only
+    if all of its leading principal minors are non-zero (see
+    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_(linear_algebra) for an explanation of
+    leading principal minors of a matrix).
+    - If the matrix is singular (i.e., not invertible) and it has a rank of k
+    (i.e., it has k linearly independent columns), then it has an LU
+    decomposition if its first k leading principal minors are non-zero.
+
+This algorithm will simply attempt to perform LU decomposition on any square
+matrix and raise an error if no such decomposition exists.
+
+Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LU_decomposition
+"""
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 import numpy as np
 
 
-def lower_upper_decomposition(table: np.ndarray) -> Tuple[np.ndarray, np.ndarray]:
-    """Lower-Upper (LU) Decomposition
-
-    Example:
-
+def lower_upper_decomposition(table: np.ndarray) -> tuple[np.ndarray, np.ndarray]:
+    """
+    Perform LU decomposition on a given matrix and raises an error if the matrix
+    isn't square or if no such decomposition exists
     >>> matrix = np.array([[2, -2, 1], [0, 1, 2], [5, 3, 1]])
-    >>> outcome = lower_upper_decomposition(matrix)
-    >>> outcome[0]
+    >>> lower_mat, upper_mat = lower_upper_decomposition(matrix)
+    >>> lower_mat
     array([[1. , 0. , 0. ],
            [0. , 1. , 0. ],
            [2.5, 8. , 1. ]])
-    >>> outcome[1]
+    >>> upper_mat
     array([[  2. ,  -2. ,   1. ],
            [  0. ,   1. ,   2. ],
            [  0. ,   0. , -17.5]])
 
+    >>> matrix = np.array([[4, 3], [6, 3]])
+    >>> lower_mat, upper_mat = lower_upper_decomposition(matrix)
+    >>> lower_mat
+    array([[1. , 0. ],
+           [1.5, 1. ]])
+    >>> upper_mat
+    array([[ 4. ,  3. ],
+           [ 0. , -1.5]])
+
+    # Matrix is not square
     >>> matrix = np.array([[2, -2, 1], [0, 1, 2]])
-    >>> lower_upper_decomposition(matrix)
+    >>> lower_mat, upper_mat = lower_upper_decomposition(matrix)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: 'table' has to be of square shaped array but got a 2x3 array:
     [[ 2 -2  1]
      [ 0  1  2]]
+
+    # Matrix is invertible, but its first leading principal minor is 0
+    >>> matrix = np.array([[0, 1], [1, 0]])
+    >>> lower_mat, upper_mat = lower_upper_decomposition(matrix)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+    ArithmeticError: No LU decomposition exists
+
+    # Matrix is singular, but its first leading principal minor is 1
+    >>> matrix = np.array([[1, 0], [1, 0]])
+    >>> lower_mat, upper_mat = lower_upper_decomposition(matrix)
+    >>> lower_mat
+    array([[1., 0.],
+           [1., 1.]])
+    >>> upper_mat
+    array([[1., 0.],
+           [0., 0.]])
+
+    # Matrix is singular, but its first leading principal minor is 0
+    >>> matrix = np.array([[0, 1], [0, 1]])
+    >>> lower_mat, upper_mat = lower_upper_decomposition(matrix)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+    ArithmeticError: No LU decomposition exists
     """
-    # Table that contains our data
-    # Table has to be a square array so we need to check first
+    # Ensure that table is a square array
     rows, columns = np.shape(table)
     if rows != columns:
-        raise ValueError(
-            f"'table' has to be of square shaped array but got a {rows}x{columns} "
-            + f"array:\n{table}"
+        msg = (
+            "'table' has to be of square shaped array but got a "
+            f"{rows}x{columns} array:\n{table}"
         )
+        raise ValueError(msg)
+
     lower = np.zeros((rows, columns))
     upper = np.zeros((rows, columns))
     for i in range(columns):
         for j in range(i):
-            total = 0
-            for k in range(j):
-                total += lower[i][k] * upper[k][j]
+            total = sum(lower[i][k] * upper[k][j] for k in range(j))
+            if upper[j][j] == 0:
+                raise ArithmeticError("No LU decomposition exists")
             lower[i][j] = (table[i][j] - total) / upper[j][j]
         lower[i][i] = 1
         for j in range(i, columns):
-            total = 0
-            for k in range(i):
-                total += lower[i][k] * upper[k][j]
+            total = sum(lower[i][k] * upper[k][j] for k in range(j))
             upper[i][j] = table[i][j] - total
     return lower, upper
 

arithmetic_analysis/newton_forward_interpolation.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 # https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/newton-forward-backward-interpolation/
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 import math
-from typing import List
 
 
 # for calculating u value
@@ -22,8 +22,8 @@ def ucal(u: float, p: int) -> float:
 
 def main() -> None:
     n = int(input("enter the numbers of values: "))
-    y: List[List[float]] = []
-    for i in range(n):
+    y: list[list[float]] = []
+    for _ in range(n):
         y.append([])
     for i in range(n):
         for j in range(n):

arithmetic_analysis/newton_method.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 """Newton's Method."""
 
 # Newton's Method - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_method
-from typing import Callable
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 RealFunc = Callable[[float], float]  # type alias for a real -> real function
 
@@ -37,17 +37,17 @@ def newton(
             next_guess = prev_guess - function(prev_guess) / derivative(prev_guess)
         except ZeroDivisionError:
             raise ZeroDivisionError("Could not find root") from None
-        if abs(prev_guess - next_guess) < 10 ** -5:
+        if abs(prev_guess - next_guess) < 10**-5:
             return next_guess
         prev_guess = next_guess
 
 
 def f(x: float) -> float:
-    return (x ** 3) - (2 * x) - 5
+    return (x**3) - (2 * x) - 5
 
 
 def f1(x: float) -> float:
-    return 3 * (x ** 2) - 2
+    return 3 * (x**2) - 2
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":

arithmetic_analysis/newton_raphson.py

@@ -2,15 +2,16 @@
 # Author: Syed Haseeb Shah (github.com/QuantumNovice)
 # The Newton-Raphson method (also known as Newton's method) is a way to
 # quickly find a good approximation for the root of a real-valued function
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from decimal import Decimal
-from math import *  # noqa: F401, F403
-from typing import Union
+from math import *  # noqa: F403
 
 from sympy import diff
 
 
 def newton_raphson(
-    func: str, a: Union[float, Decimal], precision: float = 10 ** -10
+    func: str, a: float | Decimal, precision: float = 10**-10
 ) -> float:
     """Finds root from the point 'a' onwards by Newton-Raphson method
     >>> newton_raphson("sin(x)", 2)
@@ -24,9 +25,11 @@ def newton_raphson(
     """
     x = a
     while True:
-        x = Decimal(x) - (Decimal(eval(func)) / Decimal(eval(str(diff(func)))))
+        x = Decimal(x) - (
+            Decimal(eval(func)) / Decimal(eval(str(diff(func))))  # noqa: S307
+        )
         # This number dictates the accuracy of the answer
-        if abs(eval(func)) < precision:
+        if abs(eval(func)) < precision:  # noqa: S307
             return float(x)
 
 

arithmetic_analysis/newton_raphson_new.py

@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+# Implementing Newton Raphson method in Python
+# Author: Saksham Gupta
+#
+# The Newton-Raphson method (also known as Newton's method) is a way to
+# quickly find a good approximation for the root of a functreal-valued ion
+# The method can also be extended to complex functions
+#
+# Newton's Method - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_method
+
+from sympy import diff, lambdify, symbols
+from sympy.functions import *  # noqa: F403
+
+
+def newton_raphson(
+    function: str,
+    starting_point: complex,
+    variable: str = "x",
+    precision: float = 10**-10,
+    multiplicity: int = 1,
+) -> complex:
+    """Finds root from the 'starting_point' onwards by Newton-Raphson method
+    Refer to https://docs.sympy.org/latest/modules/functions/index.html
+    for usable mathematical functions
+
+    >>> newton_raphson("sin(x)", 2)
+    3.141592653589793
+    >>> newton_raphson("x**4 -5", 0.4 + 5j)
+    (-7.52316384526264e-37+1.4953487812212207j)
+    >>> newton_raphson('log(y) - 1', 2, variable='y')
+    2.7182818284590455
+    >>> newton_raphson('exp(x) - 1', 10, precision=0.005)
+    1.2186556186174883e-10
+    >>> newton_raphson('cos(x)', 0)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ZeroDivisionError: Could not find root
+    """
+
+    x = symbols(variable)
+    func = lambdify(x, function)
+    diff_function = lambdify(x, diff(function, x))
+
+    prev_guess = starting_point
+
+    while True:
+        if diff_function(prev_guess) != 0:
+            next_guess = prev_guess - multiplicity * func(prev_guess) / diff_function(
+                prev_guess
+            )
+        else:
+            raise ZeroDivisionError("Could not find root") from None
+
+        # Precision is checked by comparing the difference of consecutive guesses
+        if abs(next_guess - prev_guess) < precision:
+            return next_guess
+
+        prev_guess = next_guess
+
+
+# Let's Execute
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    # Find root of trigonometric function
+    # Find value of pi
+    print(f"The root of sin(x) = 0 is {newton_raphson('sin(x)', 2)}")
+
+    # Find root of polynomial
+    # Find fourth Root of 5
+    print(f"The root of x**4 - 5 = 0 is {newton_raphson('x**4 -5', 0.4 +5j)}")
+
+    # Find value of e
+    print(
+        "The root of log(y) - 1 = 0 is ",
+        f"{newton_raphson('log(y) - 1', 2, variable='y')}",
+    )
+
+    # Exponential Roots
+    print(
+        "The root of exp(x) - 1 = 0 is",
+        f"{newton_raphson('exp(x) - 1', 10, precision=0.005)}",
+    )
+
+    # Find root of cos(x)
+    print(f"The root of cos(x) = 0 is {newton_raphson('cos(x)', 0)}")

arithmetic_analysis/secant_method.py

@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ def secant_method(lower_bound: float, upper_bound: float, repeats: int) -> float
     """
     x0 = lower_bound
     x1 = upper_bound
-    for i in range(0, repeats):
+    for _ in range(0, repeats):
         x0, x1 = x1, x1 - (f(x1) * (x1 - x0)) / (f(x1) - f(x0))
     return x1
 

audio_filters/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+# Audio Filter
+
+Audio filters work on the frequency of an audio signal to attenuate unwanted frequency and amplify wanted ones.
+They are used within anything related to sound, whether it is radio communication or a hi-fi system.
+
+* <https://www.masteringbox.com/filter-types/>
+* <http://ethanwiner.com/filters.html>
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_filter>
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_filter>

audio_filters/butterworth_filter.py

@@ -0,0 +1,226 @@
+from math import cos, sin, sqrt, tau
+
+from audio_filters.iir_filter import IIRFilter
+
+"""
+Create 2nd-order IIR filters with Butterworth design.
+
+Code based on https://webaudio.github.io/Audio-EQ-Cookbook/audio-eq-cookbook.html
+Alternatively you can use scipy.signal.butter, which should yield the same results.
+"""
+
+
+def make_lowpass(
+    frequency: int, samplerate: int, q_factor: float = 1 / sqrt(2)  # noqa: B008
+) -> IIRFilter:
+    """
+    Creates a low-pass filter
+
+    >>> filter = make_lowpass(1000, 48000)
+    >>> filter.a_coeffs + filter.b_coeffs  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    [1.0922959556412573, -1.9828897227476208, 0.9077040443587427, 0.004277569313094809,
+     0.008555138626189618, 0.004277569313094809]
+    """
+    w0 = tau * frequency / samplerate
+    _sin = sin(w0)
+    _cos = cos(w0)
+    alpha = _sin / (2 * q_factor)
+
+    b0 = (1 - _cos) / 2
+    b1 = 1 - _cos
+
+    a0 = 1 + alpha
+    a1 = -2 * _cos
+    a2 = 1 - alpha
+
+    filt = IIRFilter(2)
+    filt.set_coefficients([a0, a1, a2], [b0, b1, b0])
+    return filt
+
+
+def make_highpass(
+    frequency: int, samplerate: int, q_factor: float = 1 / sqrt(2)  # noqa: B008
+) -> IIRFilter:
+    """
+    Creates a high-pass filter
+
+    >>> filter = make_highpass(1000, 48000)
+    >>> filter.a_coeffs + filter.b_coeffs  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    [1.0922959556412573, -1.9828897227476208, 0.9077040443587427, 0.9957224306869052,
+     -1.9914448613738105, 0.9957224306869052]
+    """
+    w0 = tau * frequency / samplerate
+    _sin = sin(w0)
+    _cos = cos(w0)
+    alpha = _sin / (2 * q_factor)
+
+    b0 = (1 + _cos) / 2
+    b1 = -1 - _cos
+
+    a0 = 1 + alpha
+    a1 = -2 * _cos
+    a2 = 1 - alpha
+
+    filt = IIRFilter(2)
+    filt.set_coefficients([a0, a1, a2], [b0, b1, b0])
+    return filt
+
+
+def make_bandpass(
+    frequency: int, samplerate: int, q_factor: float = 1 / sqrt(2)  # noqa: B008
+) -> IIRFilter:
+    """
+    Creates a band-pass filter
+
+    >>> filter = make_bandpass(1000, 48000)
+    >>> filter.a_coeffs + filter.b_coeffs  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    [1.0922959556412573, -1.9828897227476208, 0.9077040443587427, 0.06526309611002579,
+     0, -0.06526309611002579]
+    """
+    w0 = tau * frequency / samplerate
+    _sin = sin(w0)
+    _cos = cos(w0)
+    alpha = _sin / (2 * q_factor)
+
+    b0 = _sin / 2
+    b1 = 0
+    b2 = -b0
+
+    a0 = 1 + alpha
+    a1 = -2 * _cos
+    a2 = 1 - alpha
+
+    filt = IIRFilter(2)
+    filt.set_coefficients([a0, a1, a2], [b0, b1, b2])
+    return filt
+
+
+def make_allpass(
+    frequency: int, samplerate: int, q_factor: float = 1 / sqrt(2)  # noqa: B008
+) -> IIRFilter:
+    """
+    Creates an all-pass filter
+
+    >>> filter = make_allpass(1000, 48000)
+    >>> filter.a_coeffs + filter.b_coeffs  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    [1.0922959556412573, -1.9828897227476208, 0.9077040443587427, 0.9077040443587427,
+     -1.9828897227476208, 1.0922959556412573]
+    """
+    w0 = tau * frequency / samplerate
+    _sin = sin(w0)
+    _cos = cos(w0)
+    alpha = _sin / (2 * q_factor)
+
+    b0 = 1 - alpha
+    b1 = -2 * _cos
+    b2 = 1 + alpha
+
+    filt = IIRFilter(2)
+    filt.set_coefficients([b2, b1, b0], [b0, b1, b2])
+    return filt
+
+
+def make_peak(
+    frequency: int,
+    samplerate: int,
+    gain_db: float,
+    q_factor: float = 1 / sqrt(2),  # noqa: B008
+) -> IIRFilter:
+    """
+    Creates a peak filter
+
+    >>> filter = make_peak(1000, 48000, 6)
+    >>> filter.a_coeffs + filter.b_coeffs  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    [1.0653405327119334, -1.9828897227476208, 0.9346594672880666, 1.1303715025601122,
+     -1.9828897227476208, 0.8696284974398878]
+    """
+    w0 = tau * frequency / samplerate
+    _sin = sin(w0)
+    _cos = cos(w0)
+    alpha = _sin / (2 * q_factor)
+    big_a = 10 ** (gain_db / 40)
+
+    b0 = 1 + alpha * big_a
+    b1 = -2 * _cos
+    b2 = 1 - alpha * big_a
+    a0 = 1 + alpha / big_a
+    a1 = -2 * _cos
+    a2 = 1 - alpha / big_a
+
+    filt = IIRFilter(2)
+    filt.set_coefficients([a0, a1, a2], [b0, b1, b2])
+    return filt
+
+
+def make_lowshelf(
+    frequency: int,
+    samplerate: int,
+    gain_db: float,
+    q_factor: float = 1 / sqrt(2),  # noqa: B008
+) -> IIRFilter:
+    """
+    Creates a low-shelf filter
+
+    >>> filter = make_lowshelf(1000, 48000, 6)
+    >>> filter.a_coeffs + filter.b_coeffs  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    [3.0409336710888786, -5.608870992220748, 2.602157875636628, 3.139954022810743,
+     -5.591841778072785, 2.5201667380627257]
+    """
+    w0 = tau * frequency / samplerate
+    _sin = sin(w0)
+    _cos = cos(w0)
+    alpha = _sin / (2 * q_factor)
+    big_a = 10 ** (gain_db / 40)
+    pmc = (big_a + 1) - (big_a - 1) * _cos
+    ppmc = (big_a + 1) + (big_a - 1) * _cos
+    mpc = (big_a - 1) - (big_a + 1) * _cos
+    pmpc = (big_a - 1) + (big_a + 1) * _cos
+    aa2 = 2 * sqrt(big_a) * alpha
+
+    b0 = big_a * (pmc + aa2)
+    b1 = 2 * big_a * mpc
+    b2 = big_a * (pmc - aa2)
+    a0 = ppmc + aa2
+    a1 = -2 * pmpc
+    a2 = ppmc - aa2
+
+    filt = IIRFilter(2)
+    filt.set_coefficients([a0, a1, a2], [b0, b1, b2])
+    return filt
+
+
+def make_highshelf(
+    frequency: int,
+    samplerate: int,
+    gain_db: float,
+    q_factor: float = 1 / sqrt(2),  # noqa: B008
+) -> IIRFilter:
+    """
+    Creates a high-shelf filter
+
+    >>> filter = make_highshelf(1000, 48000, 6)
+    >>> filter.a_coeffs + filter.b_coeffs  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    [2.2229172136088806, -3.9587208137297303, 1.7841414181566304, 4.295432981120543,
+     -7.922740859457287, 3.6756456963725253]
+    """
+    w0 = tau * frequency / samplerate
+    _sin = sin(w0)
+    _cos = cos(w0)
+    alpha = _sin / (2 * q_factor)
+    big_a = 10 ** (gain_db / 40)
+    pmc = (big_a + 1) - (big_a - 1) * _cos
+    ppmc = (big_a + 1) + (big_a - 1) * _cos
+    mpc = (big_a - 1) - (big_a + 1) * _cos
+    pmpc = (big_a - 1) + (big_a + 1) * _cos
+    aa2 = 2 * sqrt(big_a) * alpha
+
+    b0 = big_a * (ppmc + aa2)
+    b1 = -2 * big_a * pmpc
+    b2 = big_a * (ppmc - aa2)
+    a0 = pmc + aa2
+    a1 = 2 * mpc
+    a2 = pmc - aa2
+
+    filt = IIRFilter(2)
+    filt.set_coefficients([a0, a1, a2], [b0, b1, b2])
+    return filt

audio_filters/equal_loudness_filter.py.broken.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+from json import loads
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import numpy as np
+from yulewalker import yulewalk
+
+from audio_filters.butterworth_filter import make_highpass
+from audio_filters.iir_filter import IIRFilter
+
+data = loads((Path(__file__).resolve().parent / "loudness_curve.json").read_text())
+
+
+class EqualLoudnessFilter:
+    r"""
+    An equal-loudness filter which compensates for the human ear's non-linear response
+     to sound.
+    This filter corrects this by cascading a yulewalk filter and a butterworth filter.
+
+    Designed for use with samplerate of 44.1kHz and above. If you're using a lower
+     samplerate, use with caution.
+
+    Code based on matlab implementation at https://bit.ly/3eqh2HU
+    (url shortened for ruff)
+
+    Target curve: https://i.imgur.com/3g2VfaM.png
+    Yulewalk response: https://i.imgur.com/J9LnJ4C.png
+    Butterworth and overall response: https://i.imgur.com/3g2VfaM.png
+
+    Images and original matlab implementation by David Robinson, 2001
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, samplerate: int = 44100) -> None:
+        self.yulewalk_filter = IIRFilter(10)
+        self.butterworth_filter = make_highpass(150, samplerate)
+
+        # pad the data to nyquist
+        curve_freqs = np.array(data["frequencies"] + [max(20000.0, samplerate / 2)])
+        curve_gains = np.array(data["gains"] + [140])
+
+        # Convert to angular frequency
+        freqs_normalized = curve_freqs / samplerate * 2
+        # Invert the curve and normalize to 0dB
+        gains_normalized = np.power(10, (np.min(curve_gains) - curve_gains) / 20)
+
+        # Scipy's `yulewalk` function is a stub, so we're using the
+        #  `yulewalker` library instead.
+        # This function computes the coefficients using a least-squares
+        #  fit to the specified curve.
+        ya, yb = yulewalk(10, freqs_normalized, gains_normalized)
+        self.yulewalk_filter.set_coefficients(ya, yb)
+
+    def process(self, sample: float) -> float:
+        """
+        Process a single sample through both filters
+
+        >>> filt = EqualLoudnessFilter()
+        >>> filt.process(0.0)
+        0.0
+        """
+        tmp = self.yulewalk_filter.process(sample)
+        return self.butterworth_filter.process(tmp)

audio_filters/iir_filter.py

@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+
+class IIRFilter:
+    r"""
+    N-Order IIR filter
+    Assumes working with float samples normalized on [-1, 1]
+
+    ---
+
+    Implementation details:
+    Based on the 2nd-order function from
+     https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_biquad_filter,
+    this generalized N-order function was made.
+
+    Using the following transfer function
+    H(z)=\frac{b_{0}+b_{1}z^{-1}+b_{2}z^{-2}+...+b_{k}z^{-k}}{a_{0}+a_{1}z^{-1}+a_{2}z^{-2}+...+a_{k}z^{-k}}
+    we can rewrite this to
+    y[n]={\frac{1}{a_{0}}}\left(\left(b_{0}x[n]+b_{1}x[n-1]+b_{2}x[n-2]+...+b_{k}x[n-k]\right)-\left(a_{1}y[n-1]+a_{2}y[n-2]+...+a_{k}y[n-k]\right)\right)
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, order: int) -> None:
+        self.order = order
+
+        # a_{0} ... a_{k}
+        self.a_coeffs = [1.0] + [0.0] * order
+        # b_{0} ... b_{k}
+        self.b_coeffs = [1.0] + [0.0] * order
+
+        # x[n-1] ... x[n-k]
+        self.input_history = [0.0] * self.order
+        # y[n-1] ... y[n-k]
+        self.output_history = [0.0] * self.order
+
+    def set_coefficients(self, a_coeffs: list[float], b_coeffs: list[float]) -> None:
+        """
+        Set the coefficients for the IIR filter. These should both be of size order + 1.
+        a_0 may be left out, and it will use 1.0 as default value.
+
+        This method works well with scipy's filter design functions
+            >>> # Make a 2nd-order 1000Hz butterworth lowpass filter
+            >>> import scipy.signal
+            >>> b_coeffs, a_coeffs = scipy.signal.butter(2, 1000,
+            ...                                          btype='lowpass',
+            ...                                          fs=48000)
+            >>> filt = IIRFilter(2)
+            >>> filt.set_coefficients(a_coeffs, b_coeffs)
+        """
+        if len(a_coeffs) < self.order:
+            a_coeffs = [1.0, *a_coeffs]
+
+        if len(a_coeffs) != self.order + 1:
+            msg = (
+                f"Expected a_coeffs to have {self.order + 1} elements "
+                f"for {self.order}-order filter, got {len(a_coeffs)}"
+            )
+            raise ValueError(msg)
+
+        if len(b_coeffs) != self.order + 1:
+            msg = (
+                f"Expected b_coeffs to have {self.order + 1} elements "
+                f"for {self.order}-order filter, got {len(a_coeffs)}"
+            )
+            raise ValueError(msg)
+
+        self.a_coeffs = a_coeffs
+        self.b_coeffs = b_coeffs
+
+    def process(self, sample: float) -> float:
+        """
+        Calculate y[n]
+
+        >>> filt = IIRFilter(2)
+        >>> filt.process(0)
+        0.0
+        """
+        result = 0.0
+
+        # Start at index 1 and do index 0 at the end.
+        for i in range(1, self.order + 1):
+            result += (
+                self.b_coeffs[i] * self.input_history[i - 1]
+                - self.a_coeffs[i] * self.output_history[i - 1]
+            )
+
+        result = (result + self.b_coeffs[0] * sample) / self.a_coeffs[0]
+
+        self.input_history[1:] = self.input_history[:-1]
+        self.output_history[1:] = self.output_history[:-1]
+
+        self.input_history[0] = sample
+        self.output_history[0] = result
+
+        return result

audio_filters/loudness_curve.json

@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+{
+  "_comment": "The following is a representative average of the Equal Loudness Contours as measured by Robinson and Dadson, 1956",
+  "_doi": "10.1088/0508-3443/7/5/302",
+  "frequencies": [
+    0,
+    20,
+    30,
+    40,
+    50,
+    60,
+    70,
+    80,
+    90,
+    100,
+    200,
+    300,
+    400,
+    500,
+    600,
+    700,
+    800,
+    900,
+    1000,
+    1500,
+    2000,
+    2500,
+    3000,
+    3700,
+    4000,
+    5000,
+    6000,
+    7000,
+    8000,
+    9000,
+    10000,
+    12000,
+    15000,
+    20000
+  ],
+  "gains": [
+    120,
+    113,
+    103,
+    97,
+    93,
+    91,
+    89,
+    87,
+    86,
+    85,
+    78,
+    76,
+    76,
+    76,
+    76,
+    77,
+    78,
+    79.5,
+    80,
+    79,
+    77,
+    74,
+    71.5,
+    70,
+    70.5,
+    74,
+    79,
+    84,
+    86,
+    86,
+    85,
+    95,
+    110,
+    125
+  ]
+}

audio_filters/show_response.py

@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from math import pi
+from typing import Protocol
+
+import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+import numpy as np
+
+
+class FilterType(Protocol):
+    def process(self, sample: float) -> float:
+        """
+        Calculate y[n]
+
+        >>> issubclass(FilterType, Protocol)
+        True
+        """
+        return 0.0
+
+
+def get_bounds(
+    fft_results: np.ndarray, samplerate: int
+) -> tuple[int | float, int | float]:
+    """
+    Get bounds for printing fft results
+
+    >>> import numpy
+    >>> array = numpy.linspace(-20.0, 20.0, 1000)
+    >>> get_bounds(array, 1000)
+    (-20, 20)
+    """
+    lowest = min([-20, np.min(fft_results[1 : samplerate // 2 - 1])])
+    highest = max([20, np.max(fft_results[1 : samplerate // 2 - 1])])
+    return lowest, highest
+
+
+def show_frequency_response(filter_type: FilterType, samplerate: int) -> None:
+    """
+    Show frequency response of a filter
+
+    >>> from audio_filters.iir_filter import IIRFilter
+    >>> filt = IIRFilter(4)
+    >>> show_frequency_response(filt, 48000)
+    """
+
+    size = 512
+    inputs = [1] + [0] * (size - 1)
+    outputs = [filter_type.process(item) for item in inputs]
+
+    filler = [0] * (samplerate - size)  # zero-padding
+    outputs += filler
+    fft_out = np.abs(np.fft.fft(outputs))
+    fft_db = 20 * np.log10(fft_out)
+
+    # Frequencies on log scale from 24 to nyquist frequency
+    plt.xlim(24, samplerate / 2 - 1)
+    plt.xlabel("Frequency (Hz)")
+    plt.xscale("log")
+
+    # Display within reasonable bounds
+    bounds = get_bounds(fft_db, samplerate)
+    plt.ylim(max([-80, bounds[0]]), min([80, bounds[1]]))
+    plt.ylabel("Gain (dB)")
+
+    plt.plot(fft_db)
+    plt.show()
+
+
+def show_phase_response(filter_type: FilterType, samplerate: int) -> None:
+    """
+    Show phase response of a filter
+
+    >>> from audio_filters.iir_filter import IIRFilter
+    >>> filt = IIRFilter(4)
+    >>> show_phase_response(filt, 48000)
+    """
+
+    size = 512
+    inputs = [1] + [0] * (size - 1)
+    outputs = [filter_type.process(item) for item in inputs]
+
+    filler = [0] * (samplerate - size)  # zero-padding
+    outputs += filler
+    fft_out = np.angle(np.fft.fft(outputs))
+
+    # Frequencies on log scale from 24 to nyquist frequency
+    plt.xlim(24, samplerate / 2 - 1)
+    plt.xlabel("Frequency (Hz)")
+    plt.xscale("log")
+
+    plt.ylim(-2 * pi, 2 * pi)
+    plt.ylabel("Phase shift (Radians)")
+    plt.plot(np.unwrap(fft_out, -2 * pi))
+    plt.show()

backtracking/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+# Backtracking
+
+Backtracking is a way to speed up the search process by removing candidates when they can't be the solution of a problem.
+
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backtracking>
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_tree_pruning>
+* <https://medium.com/@priyankmistry1999/backtracking-sudoku-6e4439e4825c>
+* <https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sudoku-backtracking-7/>

backtracking/all_combinations.py

@@ -3,16 +3,16 @@
         numbers out of 1 ... n. We use backtracking to solve this problem.
         Time complexity: O(C(n,k)) which is O(n choose k) = O((n!/(k! * (n - k)!)))
 """
-from typing import List
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 
-def generate_all_combinations(n: int, k: int) -> List[List[int]]:
+def generate_all_combinations(n: int, k: int) -> list[list[int]]:
     """
     >>> generate_all_combinations(n=4, k=2)
     [[1, 2], [1, 3], [1, 4], [2, 3], [2, 4], [3, 4]]
     """
 
-    result: List[List[int]] = []
+    result: list[list[int]] = []
     create_all_state(1, n, k, [], result)
     return result
 
@@ -21,8 +21,8 @@ def create_all_state(
     increment: int,
     total_number: int,
     level: int,
-    current_list: List[int],
-    total_list: List[List[int]],
+    current_list: list[int],
+    total_list: list[list[int]],
 ) -> None:
     if level == 0:
         total_list.append(current_list[:])
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ def create_all_state(
         current_list.pop()
 
 
-def print_all_state(total_list: List[List[int]]) -> None:
+def print_all_state(total_list: list[list[int]]) -> None:
     for i in total_list:
         print(*i)
 

backtracking/all_permutations.py

@@ -5,18 +5,18 @@
         Time complexity: O(n! * n),
         where n denotes the length of the given sequence.
 """
-from typing import List, Union
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 
-def generate_all_permutations(sequence: List[Union[int, str]]) -> None:
+def generate_all_permutations(sequence: list[int | str]) -> None:
     create_state_space_tree(sequence, [], 0, [0 for i in range(len(sequence))])
 
 
 def create_state_space_tree(
-    sequence: List[Union[int, str]],
-    current_sequence: List[Union[int, str]],
+    sequence: list[int | str],
+    current_sequence: list[int | str],
     index: int,
-    index_used: List[int],
+    index_used: list[int],
 ) -> None:
     """
     Creates a state space tree to iterate through each branch using DFS.
@@ -44,8 +44,8 @@ print("Enter the elements")
 sequence = list(map(int, input().split()))
 """
 
-sequence: List[Union[int, str]] = [3, 1, 2, 4]
+sequence: list[int | str] = [3, 1, 2, 4]
 generate_all_permutations(sequence)
 
-sequence_2: List[Union[int, str]] = ["A", "B", "C"]
+sequence_2: list[int | str] = ["A", "B", "C"]
 generate_all_permutations(sequence_2)

backtracking/all_subsequences.py

@@ -5,15 +5,17 @@ of the given sequence. We use backtracking to solve this problem.
 Time complexity: O(2^n),
 where n denotes the length of the given sequence.
 """
-from typing import Any, List
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import Any
 
 
-def generate_all_subsequences(sequence: List[Any]) -> None:
+def generate_all_subsequences(sequence: list[Any]) -> None:
     create_state_space_tree(sequence, [], 0)
 
 
 def create_state_space_tree(
-    sequence: List[Any], current_subsequence: List[Any], index: int
+    sequence: list[Any], current_subsequence: list[Any], index: int
 ) -> None:
     """
     Creates a state space tree to iterate through each branch using DFS.
@@ -32,7 +34,7 @@ def create_state_space_tree(
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":
-    seq: List[Any] = [3, 1, 2, 4]
+    seq: list[Any] = [3, 1, 2, 4]
     generate_all_subsequences(seq)
 
     seq.clear()

backtracking/coloring.py

@@ -1,20 +1,19 @@
 """
     Graph Coloring also called "m coloring problem"
-    consists of coloring given graph with at most m colors
-    such that no adjacent vertices are assigned same color
+    consists of coloring a given graph with at most m colors
+    such that no adjacent vertices are assigned the same color
 
     Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_coloring
 """
-from typing import List
 
 
 def valid_coloring(
-    neighbours: List[int], colored_vertices: List[int], color: int
+    neighbours: list[int], colored_vertices: list[int], color: int
 ) -> bool:
     """
-    For each neighbour check if coloring constraint is satisfied
+    For each neighbour check if the coloring constraint is satisfied
     If any of the neighbours fail the constraint return False
-    If all neighbours validate constraint return True
+    If all neighbours validate the constraint return True
 
     >>> neighbours = [0,1,0,1,0]
     >>> colored_vertices = [0, 2, 1, 2, 0]
@@ -35,21 +34,21 @@ def valid_coloring(
 
 
 def util_color(
-    graph: List[List[int]], max_colors: int, colored_vertices: List[int], index: int
+    graph: list[list[int]], max_colors: int, colored_vertices: list[int], index: int
 ) -> bool:
     """
     Pseudo-Code
 
     Base Case:
     1. Check if coloring is complete
-        1.1 If complete return True (meaning that we successfully colored graph)
+        1.1 If complete return True (meaning that we successfully colored the graph)
 
     Recursive Step:
-    2. Itterates over each color:
-        Check if current coloring is valid:
+    2. Iterates over each color:
+        Check if the current coloring is valid:
             2.1. Color given vertex
-            2.2. Do recursive call check if this coloring leads to solving problem
-            2.4. if current coloring leads to solution return
+            2.2. Do recursive call, check if this coloring leads to a solution
+            2.4. if current coloring leads to a solution return
             2.5. Uncolor given vertex
 
     >>> graph = [[0, 1, 0, 0, 0],
@@ -86,7 +85,7 @@ def util_color(
     return False
 
 
-def color(graph: List[List[int]], max_colors: int) -> List[int]:
+def color(graph: list[list[int]], max_colors: int) -> list[int]:
     """
     Wrapper function to call subroutine called util_color
     which will either return True or False.

backtracking/combination_sum.py

@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+"""
+In the Combination Sum problem, we are given a list consisting of distinct integers.
+We need to find all the combinations whose sum equals to target given.
+We can use an element more than one.
+
+Time complexity(Average Case): O(n!)
+
+Constraints:
+1 <= candidates.length <= 30
+2 <= candidates[i] <= 40
+All elements of candidates are distinct.
+1 <= target <= 40
+"""
+
+
+def backtrack(
+    candidates: list, path: list, answer: list, target: int, previous_index: int
+) -> None:
+    """
+    A recursive function that searches for possible combinations. Backtracks in case
+    of a bigger current combination value than the target value.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    previous_index: Last index from the previous search
+    target: The value we need to obtain by summing our integers in the path list.
+    answer: A list of possible combinations
+    path: Current combination
+    candidates: A list of integers we can use.
+    """
+    if target == 0:
+        answer.append(path.copy())
+    else:
+        for index in range(previous_index, len(candidates)):
+            if target >= candidates[index]:
+                path.append(candidates[index])
+                backtrack(candidates, path, answer, target - candidates[index], index)
+                path.pop(len(path) - 1)
+
+
+def combination_sum(candidates: list, target: int) -> list:
+    """
+    >>> combination_sum([2, 3, 5], 8)
+    [[2, 2, 2, 2], [2, 3, 3], [3, 5]]
+    >>> combination_sum([2, 3, 6, 7], 7)
+    [[2, 2, 3], [7]]
+    >>> combination_sum([-8, 2.3, 0], 1)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded in comparison
+    """
+    path = []  # type: list[int]
+    answer = []  # type: list[int]
+    backtrack(candidates, path, answer, target, 0)
+    return answer
+
+
+def main() -> None:
+    print(combination_sum([-8, 2.3, 0], 1))
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()
+    main()

backtracking/hamiltonian_cycle.py

@@ -6,18 +6,17 @@
 
     Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_path
 """
-from typing import List
 
 
 def valid_connection(
-    graph: List[List[int]], next_ver: int, curr_ind: int, path: List[int]
+    graph: list[list[int]], next_ver: int, curr_ind: int, path: list[int]
 ) -> bool:
     """
     Checks whether it is possible to add next into path by validating 2 statements
     1. There should be path between current and next vertex
     2. Next vertex should not be in path
-    If both validations succeeds we return True saying that it is possible to connect
-    this vertices either we return False
+    If both validations succeed we return True, saying that it is possible to connect
+    this vertices, otherwise we return False
 
     Case 1:Use exact graph as in main function, with initialized values
     >>> graph = [[0, 1, 0, 1, 0],
@@ -47,7 +46,7 @@ def valid_connection(
     return not any(vertex == next_ver for vertex in path)
 
 
-def util_hamilton_cycle(graph: List[List[int]], path: List[int], curr_ind: int) -> bool:
+def util_hamilton_cycle(graph: list[list[int]], path: list[int], curr_ind: int) -> bool:
     """
     Pseudo-Code
     Base Case:
@@ -72,7 +71,7 @@ def util_hamilton_cycle(graph: List[List[int]], path: List[int], curr_ind: int)
     >>> curr_ind = 1
     >>> util_hamilton_cycle(graph, path, curr_ind)
     True
-    >>> print(path)
+    >>> path
     [0, 1, 2, 4, 3, 0]
 
     Case 2: Use exact graph as in previous case, but in the properties taken from
@@ -86,7 +85,7 @@ def util_hamilton_cycle(graph: List[List[int]], path: List[int], curr_ind: int)
     >>> curr_ind = 3
     >>> util_hamilton_cycle(graph, path, curr_ind)
     True
-    >>> print(path)
+    >>> path
     [0, 1, 2, 4, 3, 0]
     """
 
@@ -96,10 +95,10 @@ def util_hamilton_cycle(graph: List[List[int]], path: List[int], curr_ind: int)
         return graph[path[curr_ind - 1]][path[0]] == 1
 
     # Recursive Step
-    for next in range(0, len(graph)):
-        if valid_connection(graph, next, curr_ind, path):
+    for next_ver in range(0, len(graph)):
+        if valid_connection(graph, next_ver, curr_ind, path):
             # Insert current vertex  into path as next transition
-            path[curr_ind] = next
+            path[curr_ind] = next_ver
             # Validate created path
             if util_hamilton_cycle(graph, path, curr_ind + 1):
                 return True
@@ -108,7 +107,7 @@ def util_hamilton_cycle(graph: List[List[int]], path: List[int], curr_ind: int)
     return False
 
 
-def hamilton_cycle(graph: List[List[int]], start_index: int = 0) -> List[int]:
+def hamilton_cycle(graph: list[list[int]], start_index: int = 0) -> list[int]:
     r"""
     Wrapper function to call subroutine called util_hamilton_cycle,
     which will either return array of vertices indicating hamiltonian cycle

backtracking/knight_tour.py

@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
 # Knight Tour Intro: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ab_dY3dZFHM
 
-from typing import List, Tuple
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 
-def get_valid_pos(position: Tuple[int, int], n: int) -> List[Tuple[int, int]]:
+def get_valid_pos(position: tuple[int, int], n: int) -> list[tuple[int, int]]:
     """
     Find all the valid positions a knight can move to from the current position.
 
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ def get_valid_pos(position: Tuple[int, int], n: int) -> List[Tuple[int, int]]:
     return permissible_positions
 
 
-def is_complete(board: List[List[int]]) -> bool:
+def is_complete(board: list[list[int]]) -> bool:
     """
     Check if the board (matrix) has been completely filled with non-zero values.
 
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ def is_complete(board: List[List[int]]) -> bool:
 
 
 def open_knight_tour_helper(
-    board: List[List[int]], pos: Tuple[int, int], curr: int
+    board: list[list[int]], pos: tuple[int, int], curr: int
 ) -> bool:
     """
     Helper function to solve knight tour problem.
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ def open_knight_tour_helper(
     return False
 
 
-def open_knight_tour(n: int) -> List[List[int]]:
+def open_knight_tour(n: int) -> list[list[int]]:
     """
     Find the solution for the knight tour problem for a board of size n. Raises
     ValueError if the tour cannot be performed for the given size.
@@ -91,7 +91,8 @@ def open_knight_tour(n: int) -> List[List[int]]:
                 return board
             board[i][j] = 0
 
-    raise ValueError(f"Open Kight Tour cannot be performed on a board of size {n}")
+    msg = f"Open Kight Tour cannot be performed on a board of size {n}"
+    raise ValueError(msg)
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":

backtracking/minimax.py

@@ -7,12 +7,13 @@ if move is of maximizer return true else false
 leaves of game tree is stored in scores[]
 height is maximum height of Game tree
 """
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import math
-from typing import List
 
 
 def minimax(
-    depth: int, node_index: int, is_max: bool, scores: List[int], height: float
+    depth: int, node_index: int, is_max: bool, scores: list[int], height: float
 ) -> int:
     """
     >>> import math

backtracking/minmax.py

@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+"""
+Minimax helps to achieve maximum score in a game by checking all possible moves.
+
+"""
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import math
+
+
+def minimax(
+    depth: int, node_index: int, is_max: bool, scores: list[int], height: float
+) -> int:
+    """
+    depth is current depth in game tree.
+    node_index is index of current node in scores[].
+    scores[] contains the leaves of game tree.
+    height is maximum height of game tree.
+
+    >>> scores = [90, 23, 6, 33, 21, 65, 123, 34423]
+    >>> height = math.log(len(scores), 2)
+    >>> minimax(0, 0, True, scores, height)
+    65
+    >>> minimax(-1, 0, True, scores, height)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Depth cannot be less than 0
+    >>> minimax(0, 0, True, [], 2)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Scores cannot be empty
+    >>> scores = [3, 5, 2, 9, 12, 5, 23, 23]
+    >>> height = math.log(len(scores), 2)
+    >>> minimax(0, 0, True, scores, height)
+    12
+    """
+
+    if depth < 0:
+        raise ValueError("Depth cannot be less than 0")
+
+    if not scores:
+        raise ValueError("Scores cannot be empty")
+
+    if depth == height:
+        return scores[node_index]
+
+    return (
+        max(
+            minimax(depth + 1, node_index * 2, False, scores, height),
+            minimax(depth + 1, node_index * 2 + 1, False, scores, height),
+        )
+        if is_max
+        else min(
+            minimax(depth + 1, node_index * 2, True, scores, height),
+            minimax(depth + 1, node_index * 2 + 1, True, scores, height),
+        )
+    )
+
+
+def main() -> None:
+    scores = [90, 23, 6, 33, 21, 65, 123, 34423]
+    height = math.log(len(scores), 2)
+    print(f"Optimal value : {minimax(0, 0, True, scores, height)}")
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()
+    main()

backtracking/n_queens.py

@@ -7,12 +7,12 @@
  diagonal lines.
 
 """
-from typing import List
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 solution = []
 
 
-def isSafe(board: List[List[int]], row: int, column: int) -> bool:
+def is_safe(board: list[list[int]], row: int, column: int) -> bool:
     """
     This function returns a boolean value True if it is safe to place a queen there
     considering the current state of the board.
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ def isSafe(board: List[List[int]], row: int, column: int) -> bool:
     return True
 
 
-def solve(board: List[List[int]], row: int) -> bool:
+def solve(board: list[list[int]], row: int) -> bool:
     """
     It creates a state space tree and calls the safe function until it receives a
     False Boolean and terminates that branch and backtracks to the next
@@ -63,14 +63,14 @@ def solve(board: List[List[int]], row: int) -> bool:
         If all the combinations for that particular branch are successful the board is
         reinitialized for the next possible combination.
         """
-        if isSafe(board, row, i):
+        if is_safe(board, row, i):
             board[row][i] = 1
             solve(board, row + 1)
             board[row][i] = 0
     return False
 
 
-def printboard(board: List[List[int]]) -> None:
+def printboard(board: list[list[int]]) -> None:
     """
     Prints the boards that have a successful combination.
     """

backtracking/n_queens_math.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 r"""
 Problem:
 
-The n queens problem is of placing N queens on a N * N chess board such that no queen
+The n queens problem is: placing N queens on a N * N chess board such that no queen
 can attack any other queens placed on that chess board.  This means that one queen
 cannot have any other queen on its horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines.
 
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ So if we use an array and we verify that each value in the array is different to
 other we know that at least the queens can't attack each other in horizontal and
 vertical.
 
-At this point we have that halfway completed and we will treat the chessboard as a
+At this point we have it halfway completed and we will treat the chessboard as a
 Cartesian plane.  Hereinafter we are going to remember basic math, so in the school we
 learned this formula:
 
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ This formula allow us to get the slope. For the angles 45º (right diagonal) and
 See::
 https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/write-equation-line-that-hits-origin-45-degree-1474860
 
-Then we have this another formula:
+Then we have this other formula:
 
 Slope intercept:
 
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ we would have:
 
 y - mx = b
 
-And like we already have the m values for the angles 45º and 135º, this formula would
+And since we already have the m values for the angles 45º and 135º, this formula would
 look like this:
 
 45º: y - (1)x = b
@@ -71,18 +71,18 @@ look like this:
 y = row
 x = column
 
-Applying this two formulas we can check if a queen in some position is being attacked
+Applying these two formulas we can check if a queen in some position is being attacked
 for another one or vice versa.
 
 """
-from typing import List
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 
 def depth_first_search(
-    possible_board: List[int],
-    diagonal_right_collisions: List[int],
-    diagonal_left_collisions: List[int],
-    boards: List[List[str]],
+    possible_board: list[int],
+    diagonal_right_collisions: list[int],
+    diagonal_left_collisions: list[int],
+    boards: list[list[str]],
     n: int,
 ) -> None:
     """
@@ -107,7 +107,6 @@ def depth_first_search(
 
     # We iterate each column in the row to find all possible results in each row
     for col in range(n):
-
         # We apply that we learned previously. First we check that in the current board
         # (possible_board) there are not other same value because if there is it means
         # that there are a collision in vertical. Then we apply the two formulas we
@@ -130,16 +129,16 @@ def depth_first_search(
 
         # If it is False we call dfs function again and we update the inputs
         depth_first_search(
-            possible_board + [col],
-            diagonal_right_collisions + [row - col],
-            diagonal_left_collisions + [row + col],
+            [*possible_board, col],
+            [*diagonal_right_collisions, row - col],
+            [*diagonal_left_collisions, row + col],
             boards,
             n,
         )
 
 
 def n_queens_solution(n: int) -> None:
-    boards: List[List[str]] = []
+    boards: list[list[str]] = []
     depth_first_search([], [], [], boards, n)
 
     # Print all the boards

backtracking/power_sum.py

@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+"""
+Problem source: https://www.hackerrank.com/challenges/the-power-sum/problem
+Find the number of ways that a given integer X, can be expressed as the sum
+of the Nth powers of unique, natural numbers. For example, if X=13 and N=2.
+We have to find all combinations of unique squares adding up to 13.
+The only solution is 2^2+3^2. Constraints: 1<=X<=1000, 2<=N<=10.
+"""
+
+from math import pow
+
+
+def backtrack(
+    needed_sum: int,
+    power: int,
+    current_number: int,
+    current_sum: int,
+    solutions_count: int,
+) -> tuple[int, int]:
+    """
+    >>> backtrack(13, 2, 1, 0, 0)
+    (0, 1)
+    >>> backtrack(100, 2, 1, 0, 0)
+    (0, 3)
+    >>> backtrack(100, 3, 1, 0, 0)
+    (0, 1)
+    >>> backtrack(800, 2, 1, 0, 0)
+    (0, 561)
+    >>> backtrack(1000, 10, 1, 0, 0)
+    (0, 0)
+    >>> backtrack(400, 2, 1, 0, 0)
+    (0, 55)
+    >>> backtrack(50, 1, 1, 0, 0)
+    (0, 3658)
+    """
+    if current_sum == needed_sum:
+        # If the sum of the powers is equal to needed_sum, then we have a solution.
+        solutions_count += 1
+        return current_sum, solutions_count
+
+    i_to_n = int(pow(current_number, power))
+    if current_sum + i_to_n <= needed_sum:
+        # If the sum of the powers is less than needed_sum, then continue adding powers.
+        current_sum += i_to_n
+        current_sum, solutions_count = backtrack(
+            needed_sum, power, current_number + 1, current_sum, solutions_count
+        )
+        current_sum -= i_to_n
+    if i_to_n < needed_sum:
+        # If the power of i is less than needed_sum, then try with the next power.
+        current_sum, solutions_count = backtrack(
+            needed_sum, power, current_number + 1, current_sum, solutions_count
+        )
+    return current_sum, solutions_count
+
+
+def solve(needed_sum: int, power: int) -> int:
+    """
+    >>> solve(13, 2)
+    1
+    >>> solve(100, 2)
+    3
+    >>> solve(100, 3)
+    1
+    >>> solve(800, 2)
+    561
+    >>> solve(1000, 10)
+    0
+    >>> solve(400, 2)
+    55
+    >>> solve(50, 1)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Invalid input
+    needed_sum must be between 1 and 1000, power between 2 and 10.
+    >>> solve(-10, 5)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Invalid input
+    needed_sum must be between 1 and 1000, power between 2 and 10.
+    """
+    if not (1 <= needed_sum <= 1000 and 2 <= power <= 10):
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Invalid input\n"
+            "needed_sum must be between 1 and 1000, power between 2 and 10."
+        )
+
+    return backtrack(needed_sum, power, 1, 0, 0)[1]  # Return the solutions_count
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

backtracking/rat_in_maze.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
-from typing import List
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 
-def solve_maze(maze: List[List[int]]) -> bool:
+def solve_maze(maze: list[list[int]]) -> bool:
     """
     This method solves the "rat in maze" problem.
     In this problem we have some n by n matrix, a start point and an end point.
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ def solve_maze(maze: List[List[int]]) -> bool:
     return solved
 
 
-def run_maze(maze: List[List[int]], i: int, j: int, solutions: List[List[int]]) -> bool:
+def run_maze(maze: list[list[int]], i: int, j: int, solutions: list[list[int]]) -> bool:
     """
     This method is recursive starting from (i, j) and going in one of four directions:
     up, down, left, right.
@@ -88,12 +88,12 @@ def run_maze(maze: List[List[int]], i: int, j: int, solutions: List[List[int]])
         solutions[i][j] = 1
         return True
 
-    lower_flag = (not (i < 0)) and (not (j < 0))  # Check lower bounds
+    lower_flag = (not i < 0) and (not j < 0)  # Check lower bounds
     upper_flag = (i < size) and (j < size)  # Check upper bounds
 
     if lower_flag and upper_flag:
         # check for already visited and block points.
-        block_flag = (not (solutions[i][j])) and (not (maze[i][j]))
+        block_flag = (not solutions[i][j]) and (not maze[i][j])
         if block_flag:
             # check visited
             solutions[i][j] = 1

backtracking/sudoku.py

@@ -9,9 +9,9 @@ function on the next column to see if it returns True. if yes, we
 have solved the puzzle. else, we backtrack and place another number
 in that cell and repeat this process.
 """
-from typing import List, Optional, Tuple
+from __future__ import annotations
 
-Matrix = List[List[int]]
+Matrix = list[list[int]]
 
 # assigning initial values to the grid
 initial_grid: Matrix = [
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ def is_safe(grid: Matrix, row: int, column: int, n: int) -> bool:
     return True
 
 
-def find_empty_location(grid: Matrix) -> Optional[Tuple[int, int]]:
+def find_empty_location(grid: Matrix) -> tuple[int, int] | None:
     """
     This function finds an empty location so that we can assign a number
     for that particular row and column.
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ def find_empty_location(grid: Matrix) -> Optional[Tuple[int, int]]:
     return None
 
 
-def sudoku(grid: Matrix) -> Optional[Matrix]:
+def sudoku(grid: Matrix) -> Matrix | None:
     """
     Takes a partially filled-in grid and attempts to assign values to
     all unassigned locations in such a way to meet the requirements

backtracking/sum_of_subsets.py

@@ -6,12 +6,12 @@
         Summation of the chosen numbers must be equal to given number M and one number
         can be used only once.
 """
-from typing import List
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 
-def generate_sum_of_subsets_soln(nums: List[int], max_sum: int) -> List[List[int]]:
-    result: List[List[int]] = []
-    path: List[int] = []
+def generate_sum_of_subsets_soln(nums: list[int], max_sum: int) -> list[list[int]]:
+    result: list[list[int]] = []
+    path: list[int] = []
     num_index = 0
     remaining_nums_sum = sum(nums)
     create_state_space_tree(nums, max_sum, num_index, path, result, remaining_nums_sum)
@@ -19,11 +19,11 @@ def generate_sum_of_subsets_soln(nums: List[int], max_sum: int) -> List[List[int
 
 
 def create_state_space_tree(
-    nums: List[int],
+    nums: list[int],
     max_sum: int,
     num_index: int,
-    path: List[int],
-    result: List[List[int]],
+    path: list[int],
+    result: list[list[int]],
     remaining_nums_sum: int,
 ) -> None:
     """
@@ -39,14 +39,14 @@ def create_state_space_tree(
     if sum(path) == max_sum:
         result.append(path)
         return
-    for num_index in range(num_index, len(nums)):
+    for index in range(num_index, len(nums)):
         create_state_space_tree(
             nums,
             max_sum,
-            num_index + 1,
-            path + [nums[num_index]],
+            index + 1,
+            [*path, nums[index]],
             result,
-            remaining_nums_sum - nums[num_index],
+            remaining_nums_sum - nums[index],
         )
 
 

backtracking/word_search.py

@@ -0,0 +1,168 @@
+"""
+Author  : Alexander Pantyukhin
+Date    : November 24, 2022
+
+Task:
+Given an m x n grid of characters board and a string word,
+return true if word exists in the grid.
+
+The word can be constructed from letters of sequentially adjacent cells,
+where adjacent cells are horizontally or vertically neighboring.
+The same letter cell may not be used more than once.
+
+Example:
+
+Matrix:
+---------
+|A|B|C|E|
+|S|F|C|S|
+|A|D|E|E|
+---------
+
+Word:
+"ABCCED"
+
+Result:
+True
+
+Implementation notes: Use backtracking approach.
+At each point, check all neighbors to try to find the next letter of the word.
+
+leetcode: https://leetcode.com/problems/word-search/
+
+"""
+
+
+def get_point_key(len_board: int, len_board_column: int, row: int, column: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Returns the hash key of matrix indexes.
+
+    >>> get_point_key(10, 20, 1, 0)
+    200
+    """
+
+    return len_board * len_board_column * row + column
+
+
+def exits_word(
+    board: list[list[str]],
+    word: str,
+    row: int,
+    column: int,
+    word_index: int,
+    visited_points_set: set[int],
+) -> bool:
+    """
+    Return True if it's possible to search the word suffix
+    starting from the word_index.
+
+    >>> exits_word([["A"]], "B", 0, 0, 0, set())
+    False
+    """
+
+    if board[row][column] != word[word_index]:
+        return False
+
+    if word_index == len(word) - 1:
+        return True
+
+    traverts_directions = [(0, 1), (0, -1), (-1, 0), (1, 0)]
+    len_board = len(board)
+    len_board_column = len(board[0])
+    for direction in traverts_directions:
+        next_i = row + direction[0]
+        next_j = column + direction[1]
+        if not (0 <= next_i < len_board and 0 <= next_j < len_board_column):
+            continue
+
+        key = get_point_key(len_board, len_board_column, next_i, next_j)
+        if key in visited_points_set:
+            continue
+
+        visited_points_set.add(key)
+        if exits_word(board, word, next_i, next_j, word_index + 1, visited_points_set):
+            return True
+
+        visited_points_set.remove(key)
+
+    return False
+
+
+def word_exists(board: list[list[str]], word: str) -> bool:
+    """
+    >>> word_exists([["A","B","C","E"],["S","F","C","S"],["A","D","E","E"]], "ABCCED")
+    True
+    >>> word_exists([["A","B","C","E"],["S","F","C","S"],["A","D","E","E"]], "SEE")
+    True
+    >>> word_exists([["A","B","C","E"],["S","F","C","S"],["A","D","E","E"]], "ABCB")
+    False
+    >>> word_exists([["A"]], "A")
+    True
+    >>> word_exists([["A","A","A","A","A","A"],
+    ...              ["A","A","A","A","A","A"],
+    ...              ["A","A","A","A","A","A"],
+    ...              ["A","A","A","A","A","A"],
+    ...              ["A","A","A","A","A","B"],
+    ...              ["A","A","A","A","B","A"]],
+    ...             "AAAAAAAAAAAAABB")
+    False
+    >>> word_exists([["A"]], 123)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: The word parameter should be a string of length greater than 0.
+    >>> word_exists([["A"]], "")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: The word parameter should be a string of length greater than 0.
+    >>> word_exists([[]], "AB")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: The board should be a non empty matrix of single chars strings.
+    >>> word_exists([], "AB")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: The board should be a non empty matrix of single chars strings.
+    >>> word_exists([["A"], [21]], "AB")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: The board should be a non empty matrix of single chars strings.
+    """
+
+    # Validate board
+    board_error_message = (
+        "The board should be a non empty matrix of single chars strings."
+    )
+
+    len_board = len(board)
+    if not isinstance(board, list) or len(board) == 0:
+        raise ValueError(board_error_message)
+
+    for row in board:
+        if not isinstance(row, list) or len(row) == 0:
+            raise ValueError(board_error_message)
+
+        for item in row:
+            if not isinstance(item, str) or len(item) != 1:
+                raise ValueError(board_error_message)
+
+    # Validate word
+    if not isinstance(word, str) or len(word) == 0:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "The word parameter should be a string of length greater than 0."
+        )
+
+    len_board_column = len(board[0])
+    for i in range(len_board):
+        for j in range(len_board_column):
+            if exits_word(
+                board, word, i, j, 0, {get_point_key(len_board, len_board_column, i, j)}
+            ):
+                return True
+
+    return False
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

bit_manipulation/README.md

@@ -1,7 +1,11 @@
-https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#binary-bitwise-operations
-https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#unary-arithmetic-and-bitwise-operations
-https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#bitwise-operations-on-integer-types
+# Bit manipulation
 
-https://wiki.python.org/moin/BitManipulation
-https://wiki.python.org/moin/BitwiseOperators
-https://www.tutorialspoint.com/python3/bitwise_operators_example.htm
+Bit manipulation is the act of manipulating bits to detect errors (hamming code), encrypts and decrypts messages (more on that in the 'ciphers' folder) or just do anything at the lowest level of your computer.
+
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_manipulation>
+* <https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#binary-bitwise-operations>
+* <https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#unary-arithmetic-and-bitwise-operations>
+* <https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#bitwise-operations-on-integer-types>
+* <https://wiki.python.org/moin/BitManipulation>
+* <https://wiki.python.org/moin/BitwiseOperators>
+* <https://www.tutorialspoint.com/python3/bitwise_operators_example.htm>

bit_manipulation/binary_and_operator.py

@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ def binary_and(a: int, b: int) -> str:
     >>> binary_and(0, -1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
-    ValueError: the value of both input must be positive
+    ValueError: the value of both inputs must be positive
     >>> binary_and(0, 1.1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ def binary_and(a: int, b: int) -> str:
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'
     """
     if a < 0 or b < 0:
-        raise ValueError("the value of both input must be positive")
+        raise ValueError("the value of both inputs must be positive")
 
     a_binary = str(bin(a))[2:]  # remove the leading "0b"
     b_binary = str(bin(b))[2:]  # remove the leading "0b"

bit_manipulation/binary_or_operator.py

@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ def binary_or(a: int, b: int) -> str:
     >>> binary_or(0, -1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
-    ValueError: the value of both input must be positive
+    ValueError: the value of both inputs must be positive
     >>> binary_or(0, 1.1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ def binary_or(a: int, b: int) -> str:
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'
     """
     if a < 0 or b < 0:
-        raise ValueError("the value of both input must be positive")
+        raise ValueError("the value of both inputs must be positive")
     a_binary = str(bin(a))[2:]  # remove the leading "0b"
     b_binary = str(bin(b))[2:]
     max_len = max(len(a_binary), len(b_binary))

bit_manipulation/binary_xor_operator.py

@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ def binary_xor(a: int, b: int) -> str:
     >>> binary_xor(0, -1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
-    ValueError: the value of both input must be positive
+    ValueError: the value of both inputs must be positive
     >>> binary_xor(0, 1.1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ def binary_xor(a: int, b: int) -> str:
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'
     """
     if a < 0 or b < 0:
-        raise ValueError("the value of both input must be positive")
+        raise ValueError("the value of both inputs must be positive")
 
     a_binary = str(bin(a))[2:]  # remove the leading "0b"
     b_binary = str(bin(b))[2:]  # remove the leading "0b"

bit_manipulation/count_1s_brian_kernighan_method.py

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+def get_1s_count(number: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Count the number of set bits in a 32 bit integer using Brian Kernighan's way.
+    Ref - https://graphics.stanford.edu/~seander/bithacks.html#CountBitsSetKernighan
+    >>> get_1s_count(25)
+    3
+    >>> get_1s_count(37)
+    3
+    >>> get_1s_count(21)
+    3
+    >>> get_1s_count(58)
+    4
+    >>> get_1s_count(0)
+    0
+    >>> get_1s_count(256)
+    1
+    >>> get_1s_count(-1)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Input must be a non-negative integer
+    >>> get_1s_count(0.8)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Input must be a non-negative integer
+    >>> get_1s_count("25")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Input must be a non-negative integer
+    """
+    if not isinstance(number, int) or number < 0:
+        raise ValueError("Input must be a non-negative integer")
+
+    count = 0
+    while number:
+        # This way we arrive at next set bit (next 1) instead of looping
+        # through each bit and checking for 1s hence the
+        # loop won't run 32 times it will only run the number of `1` times
+        number &= number - 1
+        count += 1
+    return count
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

bit_manipulation/count_number_of_one_bits.py

@@ -1,34 +1,91 @@
-def get_set_bits_count(number: int) -> int:
+from timeit import timeit
+
+
+def get_set_bits_count_using_brian_kernighans_algorithm(number: int) -> int:
     """
     Count the number of set bits in a 32 bit integer
-    >>> get_set_bits_count(25)
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_brian_kernighans_algorithm(25)
     3
-    >>> get_set_bits_count(37)
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_brian_kernighans_algorithm(37)
     3
-    >>> get_set_bits_count(21)
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_brian_kernighans_algorithm(21)
     3
-    >>> get_set_bits_count(58)
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_brian_kernighans_algorithm(58)
     4
-    >>> get_set_bits_count(0)
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_brian_kernighans_algorithm(0)
     0
-    >>> get_set_bits_count(256)
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_brian_kernighans_algorithm(256)
     1
-    >>> get_set_bits_count(-1)
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_brian_kernighans_algorithm(-1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
-    ValueError: the value of input must be positive
+    ValueError: the value of input must not be negative
     """
     if number < 0:
-        raise ValueError("the value of input must be positive")
+        raise ValueError("the value of input must not be negative")
+    result = 0
+    while number:
+        number &= number - 1
+        result += 1
+    return result
+
+
+def get_set_bits_count_using_modulo_operator(number: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Count the number of set bits in a 32 bit integer
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_modulo_operator(25)
+    3
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_modulo_operator(37)
+    3
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_modulo_operator(21)
+    3
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_modulo_operator(58)
+    4
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_modulo_operator(0)
+    0
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_modulo_operator(256)
+    1
+    >>> get_set_bits_count_using_modulo_operator(-1)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: the value of input must not be negative
+    """
+    if number < 0:
+        raise ValueError("the value of input must not be negative")
     result = 0
     while number:
         if number % 2 == 1:
             result += 1
-        number = number >> 1
+        number >>= 1
     return result
 
 
+def benchmark() -> None:
+    """
+    Benchmark code for comparing 2 functions, with different length int values.
+    Brian Kernighan's algorithm is consistently faster than using modulo_operator.
+    """
+
+    def do_benchmark(number: int) -> None:
+        setup = "import __main__ as z"
+        print(f"Benchmark when {number = }:")
+        print(f"{get_set_bits_count_using_modulo_operator(number) = }")
+        timing = timeit("z.get_set_bits_count_using_modulo_operator(25)", setup=setup)
+        print(f"timeit() runs in {timing} seconds")
+        print(f"{get_set_bits_count_using_brian_kernighans_algorithm(number) = }")
+        timing = timeit(
+            "z.get_set_bits_count_using_brian_kernighans_algorithm(25)",
+            setup=setup,
+        )
+        print(f"timeit() runs in {timing} seconds")
+
+    for number in (25, 37, 58, 0):
+        do_benchmark(number)
+        print()
+
+
 if __name__ == "__main__":
     import doctest
 
     doctest.testmod()
+    benchmark()

bit_manipulation/gray_code_sequence.py

@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+def gray_code(bit_count: int) -> list:
+    """
+    Takes in an integer n and returns a n-bit
+    gray code sequence
+    An n-bit gray code sequence is a sequence of 2^n
+    integers where:
+
+    a) Every integer is between [0,2^n -1] inclusive
+    b) The sequence begins with 0
+    c) An integer appears at most one times in the sequence
+    d)The binary representation of every pair of integers differ
+       by exactly one bit
+    e) The binary representation of first and last bit also
+       differ by exactly one bit
+
+    >>> gray_code(2)
+    [0, 1, 3, 2]
+
+    >>> gray_code(1)
+    [0, 1]
+
+    >>> gray_code(3)
+    [0, 1, 3, 2, 6, 7, 5, 4]
+
+    >>> gray_code(-1)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: The given input must be positive
+
+    >>> gray_code(10.6)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for <<: 'int' and 'float'
+    """
+
+    # bit count represents no. of bits in the gray code
+    if bit_count < 0:
+        raise ValueError("The given input must be positive")
+
+    # get the generated string sequence
+    sequence = gray_code_sequence_string(bit_count)
+    #
+    # convert them to integers
+    for i in range(len(sequence)):
+        sequence[i] = int(sequence[i], 2)
+
+    return sequence
+
+
+def gray_code_sequence_string(bit_count: int) -> list:
+    """
+    Will output the n-bit grey sequence as a
+    string of bits
+
+    >>> gray_code_sequence_string(2)
+    ['00', '01', '11', '10']
+
+    >>> gray_code_sequence_string(1)
+    ['0', '1']
+    """
+
+    # The approach is a recursive one
+    # Base case achieved when either n = 0 or n=1
+    if bit_count == 0:
+        return ["0"]
+
+    if bit_count == 1:
+        return ["0", "1"]
+
+    seq_len = 1 << bit_count  # defines the length of the sequence
+    # 1<< n is equivalent to 2^n
+
+    # recursive answer will generate answer for n-1 bits
+    smaller_sequence = gray_code_sequence_string(bit_count - 1)
+
+    sequence = []
+
+    # append 0 to first half of the smaller sequence generated
+    for i in range(seq_len // 2):
+        generated_no = "0" + smaller_sequence[i]
+        sequence.append(generated_no)
+
+    # append 1 to second half ... start from the end of the list
+    for i in reversed(range(seq_len // 2)):
+        generated_no = "1" + smaller_sequence[i]
+        sequence.append(generated_no)
+
+    return sequence
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

bit_manipulation/highest_set_bit.py

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+def get_highest_set_bit_position(number: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Returns position of the highest set bit of a number.
+    Ref - https://graphics.stanford.edu/~seander/bithacks.html#IntegerLogObvious
+    >>> get_highest_set_bit_position(25)
+    5
+    >>> get_highest_set_bit_position(37)
+    6
+    >>> get_highest_set_bit_position(1)
+    1
+    >>> get_highest_set_bit_position(4)
+    3
+    >>> get_highest_set_bit_position(0)
+    0
+    >>> get_highest_set_bit_position(0.8)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    TypeError: Input value must be an 'int' type
+    """
+    if not isinstance(number, int):
+        raise TypeError("Input value must be an 'int' type")
+
+    position = 0
+    while number:
+        position += 1
+        number >>= 1
+
+    return position
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

bit_manipulation/index_of_rightmost_set_bit.py

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+# Reference: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/position-of-rightmost-set-bit/
+
+
+def get_index_of_rightmost_set_bit(number: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Take in a positive integer 'number'.
+    Returns the zero-based index of first set bit in that 'number' from right.
+    Returns -1, If no set bit found.
+
+    >>> get_index_of_rightmost_set_bit(0)
+    -1
+    >>> get_index_of_rightmost_set_bit(5)
+    0
+    >>> get_index_of_rightmost_set_bit(36)
+    2
+    >>> get_index_of_rightmost_set_bit(8)
+    3
+    >>> get_index_of_rightmost_set_bit(-18)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Input must be a non-negative integer
+    >>> get_index_of_rightmost_set_bit('test')
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Input must be a non-negative integer
+    >>> get_index_of_rightmost_set_bit(1.25)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: Input must be a non-negative integer
+    """
+
+    if not isinstance(number, int) or number < 0:
+        raise ValueError("Input must be a non-negative integer")
+
+    intermediate = number & ~(number - 1)
+    index = 0
+    while intermediate:
+        intermediate >>= 1
+        index += 1
+    return index - 1
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    """
+    Finding the index of rightmost set bit has some very peculiar use-cases,
+    especially in finding missing or/and repeating numbers in a list of
+    positive integers.
+    """
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod(verbose=True)

bit_manipulation/is_even.py

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+def is_even(number: int) -> bool:
+    """
+    return true if the input integer is even
+    Explanation: Lets take a look at the following deicmal to binary conversions
+    2 => 10
+    14 => 1110
+    100 => 1100100
+    3 => 11
+    13 => 1101
+    101 => 1100101
+    from the above examples we can observe that
+    for all the odd integers there is always 1 set bit at the end
+    also, 1 in binary can be represented as 001, 00001, or 0000001
+    so for any odd integer n => n&1 is always equals 1 else the integer is even
+
+    >>> is_even(1)
+    False
+    >>> is_even(4)
+    True
+    >>> is_even(9)
+    False
+    >>> is_even(15)
+    False
+    >>> is_even(40)
+    True
+    >>> is_even(100)
+    True
+    >>> is_even(101)
+    False
+    """
+    return number & 1 == 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

bit_manipulation/is_power_of_two.py

@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+"""
+Author  : Alexander Pantyukhin
+Date    : November 1, 2022
+
+Task:
+Given a positive int number. Return True if this number is power of 2
+or False otherwise.
+
+Implementation notes: Use bit manipulation.
+For example if the number is the power of two it's bits representation:
+n     = 0..100..00
+n - 1 = 0..011..11
+
+n & (n - 1) - no intersections = 0
+"""
+
+
+def is_power_of_two(number: int) -> bool:
+    """
+    Return True if this number is power of 2 or False otherwise.
+
+    >>> is_power_of_two(0)
+    True
+    >>> is_power_of_two(1)
+    True
+    >>> is_power_of_two(2)
+    True
+    >>> is_power_of_two(4)
+    True
+    >>> is_power_of_two(6)
+    False
+    >>> is_power_of_two(8)
+    True
+    >>> is_power_of_two(17)
+    False
+    >>> is_power_of_two(-1)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: number must not be negative
+    >>> is_power_of_two(1.2)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for &: 'float' and 'float'
+
+    # Test all powers of 2 from 0 to 10,000
+    >>> all(is_power_of_two(int(2 ** i)) for i in range(10000))
+    True
+    """
+    if number < 0:
+        raise ValueError("number must not be negative")
+    return number & (number - 1) == 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

bit_manipulation/numbers_different_signs.py

@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+"""
+Author  : Alexander Pantyukhin
+Date    : November 30, 2022
+
+Task:
+Given two int numbers. Return True these numbers have opposite signs
+or False otherwise.
+
+Implementation notes: Use bit manipulation.
+Use XOR for two numbers.
+"""
+
+
+def different_signs(num1: int, num2: int) -> bool:
+    """
+    Return True if numbers have opposite signs False otherwise.
+
+    >>> different_signs(1, -1)
+    True
+    >>> different_signs(1, 1)
+    False
+    >>> different_signs(1000000000000000000000000000, -1000000000000000000000000000)
+    True
+    >>> different_signs(-1000000000000000000000000000, 1000000000000000000000000000)
+    True
+    >>> different_signs(50, 278)
+    False
+    >>> different_signs(0, 2)
+    False
+    >>> different_signs(2, 0)
+    False
+    """
+    return num1 ^ num2 < 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

bit_manipulation/reverse_bits.py

@@ -14,10 +14,11 @@ def get_reverse_bit_string(number: int) -> str:
     TypeError: operation can not be conducted on a object of type str
     """
     if not isinstance(number, int):
-        raise TypeError(
+        msg = (
             "operation can not be conducted on a object of type "
             f"{type(number).__name__}"
         )
+        raise TypeError(msg)
     bit_string = ""
     for _ in range(0, 32):
         bit_string += str(number % 2)

blockchain/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+# Blockchain
+
+A Blockchain is a type of **distributed ledger** technology (DLT) that consists of growing list of records, called **blocks**, that are securely linked together using **cryptography**.
+
+Let's breakdown the terminologies in the above definition. We find below terminologies,
+
+- Digital Ledger Technology (DLT)
+- Blocks
+- Cryptography
+
+## Digital Ledger Technology
+
+ It is otherwise called as distributed ledger technology. It is simply the opposite of centralized database. Firstly, what is a **ledger**? A ledger is a book or collection of accounts that records account transactions.
+
+ *Why is Blockchain addressed as digital ledger if it can record more than account transactions? What other transaction details and information can it hold?*
+
+Digital Ledger Technology is just a ledger which is shared among multiple nodes. This way there exist no need for central authority to hold the info. Okay, how is it differentiated from central database and what are their benefits?
+
+There is an organization which has 4 branches whose data are stored in a centralized database. So even if one branch needs any data from ledger they need an approval from database in charge. And if one hacks the central database he gets to tamper and control all the data.
+
+Now lets assume every branch has a copy of the ledger and then once anything is added to the ledger by anyone branch it is gonna automatically reflect in all other ledgers available in other branch. This is done using Peer-to-peer network.
+
+So this means even if information is tampered in one branch we can find out. If one branch is hacked we can be alerted ,so we can safeguard other branches. Now, assume these branches as computers or nodes and the ledger is a transaction record or digital receipt. If one ledger is hacked in a node we can detect since there will be a mismatch in comparison with other node information. So this is the concept of Digital Ledger Technology.
+
+*Is it required for all nodes to have access to all information in other nodes? Wouldn't this require enormous storage space in each node?*
+
+## Blocks
+
+In short a block is nothing but collections of records with a labelled header. These are connected cryptographically. Once a new block is added to a chain, the previous block is connected, more precisely said as locked and hence, will remain unaltered. We can understand this concept once we get a clear understanding of working mechanism of blockchain.
+
+## Cryptography
+
+It is the practice and study of secure communication techniques in the midst of adversarial behavior. More broadly, cryptography is the creation and analysis of protocols that prevent third parties or the general public from accessing private messages.
+
+*Which cryptography technology is most widely used in blockchain and why?*
+
+So, in general, blockchain technology is a distributed record holder which records the information about ownership of an asset. To define precisely,
+> Blockchain is a distributed, immutable ledger that makes it easier to record transactions and track assets in a corporate network.
+An asset could be tangible (such as a house, car, cash, or land) or intangible (such as a business) (intellectual property, patents, copyrights, branding). A blockchain network can track and sell almost anything of value, lowering risk and costs for everyone involved.
+
+So this is all about introduction to blockchain technology. To learn more about the topic refer below links....
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockchain>
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_remainder_theorem>
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation>
+* <https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/modular-division/>

blockchain/chinese_remainder_theorem.py

@@ -11,11 +11,11 @@ Algorithm :
 1. Use extended euclid algorithm to find x,y such that a*x + b*y = 1
 2. Take n = ra*by + rb*ax
 """
-from typing import Tuple
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 
 # Extended Euclid
-def extended_euclid(a: int, b: int) -> Tuple[int, int]:
+def extended_euclid(a: int, b: int) -> tuple[int, int]:
     """
     >>> extended_euclid(10, 6)
     (-1, 2)
@@ -53,6 +53,7 @@ def chinese_remainder_theorem(n1: int, r1: int, n2: int, r2: int) -> int:
 
 # ----------SAME SOLUTION USING InvertModulo instead ExtendedEuclid----------------
 
+
 # This function find the inverses of a i.e., a^(-1)
 def invert_modulo(a: int, n: int) -> int:
     """

blockchain/diophantine_equation.py

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
-from typing import Tuple
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 
-def diophantine(a: int, b: int, c: int) -> Tuple[float, float]:
+def diophantine(a: int, b: int, c: int) -> tuple[float, float]:
     """
     Diophantine Equation : Given integers a,b,c ( at least one of a and b != 0), the
     diophantine equation a*x + b*y = c has a solution (where x and y are integers)
@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ def greatest_common_divisor(a: int, b: int) -> int:
     return b
 
 
-def extended_gcd(a: int, b: int) -> Tuple[int, int, int]:
+def extended_gcd(a: int, b: int) -> tuple[int, int, int]:
     """
     Extended Euclid's Algorithm : If d divides a and b and d = a*x + b*y for integers
     x and y, then d = gcd(a,b)

blockchain/modular_division.py

@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-from typing import Tuple
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 
 def modular_division(a: int, b: int, n: int) -> int:
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ def modular_division2(a: int, b: int, n: int) -> int:
     return x
 
 
-def extended_gcd(a: int, b: int) -> Tuple[int, int, int]:
+def extended_gcd(a: int, b: int) -> tuple[int, int, int]:
     """
     Extended Euclid's Algorithm : If d divides a and b and d = a*x + b*y for integers x
     and y, then d = gcd(a,b)
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ def extended_gcd(a: int, b: int) -> Tuple[int, int, int]:
     return (d, x, y)
 
 
-def extended_euclid(a: int, b: int) -> Tuple[int, int]:
+def extended_euclid(a: int, b: int) -> tuple[int, int]:
     """
     Extended Euclid
     >>> extended_euclid(10, 6)

boolean_algebra/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# Boolean Algebra
+
+Boolean algebra is used to do arithmetic with bits of values True (1) or False (0).
+There are three basic operations: 'and', 'or' and 'not'.
+
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra>
+* <https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boolalg-math/>

boolean_algebra/and_gate.py

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+"""
+An AND Gate is a logic gate in boolean algebra which results to 1 (True) if both the
+inputs are 1, and 0 (False) otherwise.
+
+Following is the truth table of an AND Gate:
+    ------------------------------
+    | Input 1 | Input 2 | Output |
+    ------------------------------
+    |    0    |    0    |    0   |
+    |    0    |    1    |    0   |
+    |    1    |    0    |    0   |
+    |    1    |    1    |    1   |
+    ------------------------------
+
+Refer - https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/logic-gates-in-python/
+"""
+
+
+def and_gate(input_1: int, input_2: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Calculate AND of the input values
+
+    >>> and_gate(0, 0)
+    0
+    >>> and_gate(0, 1)
+    0
+    >>> and_gate(1, 0)
+    0
+    >>> and_gate(1, 1)
+    1
+    """
+    return int((input_1, input_2).count(0) == 0)
+
+
+def test_and_gate() -> None:
+    """
+    Tests the and_gate function
+    """
+    assert and_gate(0, 0) == 0
+    assert and_gate(0, 1) == 0
+    assert and_gate(1, 0) == 0
+    assert and_gate(1, 1) == 1
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    test_and_gate()
+    print(and_gate(1, 0))
+    print(and_gate(0, 0))
+    print(and_gate(0, 1))
+    print(and_gate(1, 1))

boolean_algebra/nand_gate.py

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+"""
+A NAND Gate is a logic gate in boolean algebra which results to 0 (False) if both
+the inputs are 1, and 1 (True) otherwise. It's similar to adding
+a NOT gate along with an AND gate.
+Following is the truth table of a NAND Gate:
+    ------------------------------
+    | Input 1 | Input 2 | Output |
+    ------------------------------
+    |    0    |    0    |    1   |
+    |    0    |    1    |    1   |
+    |    1    |    0    |    1   |
+    |    1    |    1    |    0   |
+    ------------------------------
+Refer - https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/logic-gates-in-python/
+"""
+
+
+def nand_gate(input_1: int, input_2: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Calculate NAND of the input values
+    >>> nand_gate(0, 0)
+    1
+    >>> nand_gate(0, 1)
+    1
+    >>> nand_gate(1, 0)
+    1
+    >>> nand_gate(1, 1)
+    0
+    """
+    return int((input_1, input_2).count(0) != 0)
+
+
+def test_nand_gate() -> None:
+    """
+    Tests the nand_gate function
+    """
+    assert nand_gate(0, 0) == 1
+    assert nand_gate(0, 1) == 1
+    assert nand_gate(1, 0) == 1
+    assert nand_gate(1, 1) == 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    print(nand_gate(0, 0))
+    print(nand_gate(0, 1))
+    print(nand_gate(1, 0))
+    print(nand_gate(1, 1))

boolean_algebra/norgate.py

@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+"""
+A NOR Gate is a logic gate in boolean algebra which results to false(0)
+if any of the input is 1, and True(1) if  both the inputs are 0.
+Following is the truth table of a NOR Gate:
+   | Input 1 | Input 2 |  Output |
+   |      0      |     0      |      1      |
+   |      0      |     1      |      0      |
+   |      1      |     0      |      0      |
+   |      1      |     1      |      0      |
+
+Following is the code implementation of the NOR Gate
+"""
+
+
+def nor_gate(input_1: int, input_2: int) -> int:
+    """
+    >>> nor_gate(0, 0)
+    1
+    >>> nor_gate(0, 1)
+    0
+    >>> nor_gate(1, 0)
+    0
+    >>> nor_gate(1, 1)
+    0
+    >>> nor_gate(0.0, 0.0)
+    1
+    >>> nor_gate(0, -7)
+    0
+    """
+    return int(input_1 == input_2 == 0)
+
+
+def main() -> None:
+    print("Truth Table of NOR Gate:")
+    print("|   Input 1   |  Input 2  | Output |")
+    print(f"|      0      |    0      |  {nor_gate(0, 0)}     |")
+    print(f"|      0      |    1      |  {nor_gate(0, 1)}     |")
+    print(f"|      1      |    0      |  {nor_gate(1, 0)}     |")
+    print(f"|      1      |    1      |  {nor_gate(1, 1)}     |")
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()
+    main()
+"""Code provided by Akshaj Vishwanathan"""
+"""Reference: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/logic-gates-in-python/"""

boolean_algebra/not_gate.py

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+"""
+A NOT Gate is a logic gate in boolean algebra which results to 0 (False) if the
+input is high, and 1 (True) if the input is low.
+Following is the truth table of a XOR Gate:
+    ------------------------------
+    | Input   |  Output |
+    ------------------------------
+    |    0    |    1    |
+    |    1    |    0    |
+    ------------------------------
+Refer - https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/logic-gates-in-python/
+"""
+
+
+def not_gate(input_1: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Calculate NOT of the input values
+    >>> not_gate(0)
+    1
+    >>> not_gate(1)
+    0
+    """
+
+    return 1 if input_1 == 0 else 0
+
+
+def test_not_gate() -> None:
+    """
+    Tests the not_gate function
+    """
+    assert not_gate(0) == 1
+    assert not_gate(1) == 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    print(not_gate(0))
+    print(not_gate(1))

boolean_algebra/or_gate.py

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+"""
+An OR Gate is a logic gate in boolean algebra which results to 0 (False) if both the
+inputs are 0, and 1 (True) otherwise.
+Following is the truth table of an AND Gate:
+    ------------------------------
+    | Input 1 | Input 2 | Output |
+    ------------------------------
+    |    0    |    0    |    0   |
+    |    0    |    1    |    1   |
+    |    1    |    0    |    1   |
+    |    1    |    1    |    1   |
+    ------------------------------
+Refer - https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/logic-gates-in-python/
+"""
+
+
+def or_gate(input_1: int, input_2: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Calculate OR of the input values
+    >>> or_gate(0, 0)
+    0
+    >>> or_gate(0, 1)
+    1
+    >>> or_gate(1, 0)
+    1
+    >>> or_gate(1, 1)
+    1
+    """
+    return int((input_1, input_2).count(1) != 0)
+
+
+def test_or_gate() -> None:
+    """
+    Tests the or_gate function
+    """
+    assert or_gate(0, 0) == 0
+    assert or_gate(0, 1) == 1
+    assert or_gate(1, 0) == 1
+    assert or_gate(1, 1) == 1
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    print(or_gate(0, 1))
+    print(or_gate(1, 0))
+    print(or_gate(0, 0))
+    print(or_gate(1, 1))

boolean_algebra/quine_mc_cluskey.py

@@ -1,43 +1,46 @@
-from typing import List
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from collections.abc import Sequence
+from typing import Literal
 
 
-def compare_string(string1: str, string2: str) -> str:
+def compare_string(string1: str, string2: str) -> str | Literal[False]:
     """
     >>> compare_string('0010','0110')
     '0_10'
 
     >>> compare_string('0110','1101')
-    'X'
+    False
     """
-    l1 = list(string1)
-    l2 = list(string2)
+    list1 = list(string1)
+    list2 = list(string2)
     count = 0
-    for i in range(len(l1)):
-        if l1[i] != l2[i]:
+    for i in range(len(list1)):
+        if list1[i] != list2[i]:
             count += 1
-            l1[i] = "_"
+            list1[i] = "_"
     if count > 1:
-        return "X"
+        return False
     else:
-        return "".join(l1)
+        return "".join(list1)
 
 
-def check(binary: List[str]) -> List[str]:
+def check(binary: list[str]) -> list[str]:
     """
     >>> check(['0.00.01.5'])
     ['0.00.01.5']
     """
     pi = []
-    while 1:
+    while True:
         check1 = ["$"] * len(binary)
         temp = []
         for i in range(len(binary)):
             for j in range(i + 1, len(binary)):
                 k = compare_string(binary[i], binary[j])
-                if k != "X":
+                if k is False:
                     check1[i] = "*"
                     check1[j] = "*"
-                    temp.append(k)
+                    temp.append("X")
         for i in range(len(binary)):
             if check1[i] == "$":
                 pi.append(binary[i])
@@ -46,19 +49,18 @@ def check(binary: List[str]) -> List[str]:
         binary = list(set(temp))
 
 
-def decimal_to_binary(no_of_variable: int, minterms: List[float]) -> List[str]:
+def decimal_to_binary(no_of_variable: int, minterms: Sequence[float]) -> list[str]:
     """
     >>> decimal_to_binary(3,[1.5])
     ['0.00.01.5']
     """
     temp = []
-    s = ""
-    for m in minterms:
-        for i in range(no_of_variable):
-            s = str(m % 2) + s
-            m //= 2
-        temp.append(s)
-        s = ""
+    for minterm in minterms:
+        string = ""
+        for _ in range(no_of_variable):
+            string = str(minterm % 2) + string
+            minterm //= 2
+        temp.append(string)
     return temp
 
 
@@ -70,19 +72,16 @@ def is_for_table(string1: str, string2: str, count: int) -> bool:
     >>> is_for_table('01_','001',1)
     False
     """
-    l1 = list(string1)
-    l2 = list(string2)
+    list1 = list(string1)
+    list2 = list(string2)
     count_n = 0
-    for i in range(len(l1)):
-        if l1[i] != l2[i]:
+    for i in range(len(list1)):
+        if list1[i] != list2[i]:
             count_n += 1
-    if count_n == count:
-        return True
-    else:
-        return False
+    return count_n == count
 
 
-def selection(chart: List[List[int]], prime_implicants: List[str]) -> List[str]:
+def selection(chart: list[list[int]], prime_implicants: list[str]) -> list[str]:
     """
     >>> selection([[1]],['0.00.01.5'])
     ['0.00.01.5']
@@ -108,7 +107,7 @@ def selection(chart: List[List[int]], prime_implicants: List[str]) -> List[str]:
                     for k in range(len(chart)):
                         chart[k][j] = 0
             temp.append(prime_implicants[i])
-    while 1:
+    while True:
         max_n = 0
         rem = -1
         count_n = 0
@@ -130,8 +129,8 @@ def selection(chart: List[List[int]], prime_implicants: List[str]) -> List[str]:
 
 
 def prime_implicant_chart(
-    prime_implicants: List[str], binary: List[str]
-) -> List[List[int]]:
+    prime_implicants: list[str], binary: list[str]
+) -> list[list[int]]:
     """
     >>> prime_implicant_chart(['0.00.01.5'],['0.00.01.5'])
     [[1]]
@@ -146,10 +145,10 @@ def prime_implicant_chart(
     return chart
 
 
-def main():
+def main() -> None:
     no_of_variable = int(input("Enter the no. of variables\n"))
     minterms = [
-        int(x)
+        float(x)
         for x in input(
             "Enter the decimal representation of Minterms 'Spaces Separated'\n"
         ).split()

boolean_algebra/xnor_gate.py

@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+"""
+A XNOR Gate is a logic gate in boolean algebra which results to 0 (False) if both the
+inputs are different, and 1 (True), if the inputs are same.
+It's similar to adding a NOT gate to an XOR gate
+
+Following is the truth table of a XNOR Gate:
+    ------------------------------
+    | Input 1 | Input 2 | Output |
+    ------------------------------
+    |    0    |    0    |    1   |
+    |    0    |    1    |    0   |
+    |    1    |    0    |    0   |
+    |    1    |    1    |    1   |
+    ------------------------------
+Refer - https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/logic-gates-in-python/
+"""
+
+
+def xnor_gate(input_1: int, input_2: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Calculate XOR of the input values
+    >>> xnor_gate(0, 0)
+    1
+    >>> xnor_gate(0, 1)
+    0
+    >>> xnor_gate(1, 0)
+    0
+    >>> xnor_gate(1, 1)
+    1
+    """
+    return 1 if input_1 == input_2 else 0
+
+
+def test_xnor_gate() -> None:
+    """
+    Tests the xnor_gate function
+    """
+    assert xnor_gate(0, 0) == 1
+    assert xnor_gate(0, 1) == 0
+    assert xnor_gate(1, 0) == 0
+    assert xnor_gate(1, 1) == 1
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    print(xnor_gate(0, 0))
+    print(xnor_gate(0, 1))
+    print(xnor_gate(1, 0))
+    print(xnor_gate(1, 1))

boolean_algebra/xor_gate.py

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+"""
+A XOR Gate is a logic gate in boolean algebra which results to 1 (True) if only one of
+the two inputs is 1, and 0 (False) if an even number of inputs are 1.
+Following is the truth table of a XOR Gate:
+    ------------------------------
+    | Input 1 | Input 2 | Output |
+    ------------------------------
+    |    0    |    0    |    0   |
+    |    0    |    1    |    1   |
+    |    1    |    0    |    1   |
+    |    1    |    1    |    0   |
+    ------------------------------
+
+Refer - https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/logic-gates-in-python/
+"""
+
+
+def xor_gate(input_1: int, input_2: int) -> int:
+    """
+    calculate xor of the input values
+
+    >>> xor_gate(0, 0)
+    0
+    >>> xor_gate(0, 1)
+    1
+    >>> xor_gate(1, 0)
+    1
+    >>> xor_gate(1, 1)
+    0
+    """
+    return (input_1, input_2).count(0) % 2
+
+
+def test_xor_gate() -> None:
+    """
+    Tests the xor_gate function
+    """
+    assert xor_gate(0, 0) == 0
+    assert xor_gate(0, 1) == 1
+    assert xor_gate(1, 0) == 1
+    assert xor_gate(1, 1) == 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    print(xor_gate(0, 0))
+    print(xor_gate(0, 1))

cellular_automata/README.md

@@ -1,4 +1,8 @@
 # Cellular Automata
 
-* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_automaton
-* https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ElementaryCellularAutomaton.html
+Cellular automata are a way to simulate the behavior of "life", no matter if it is a robot or cell.
+They usually follow simple rules but can lead to the creation of complex forms.
+The most popular cellular automaton is Conway's [Game of Life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conway%27s_Game_of_Life).
+
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_automaton>
+* <https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ElementaryCellularAutomaton.html>

cellular_automata/conways_game_of_life.py

@@ -2,11 +2,8 @@
 Conway's Game of Life implemented in Python.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conway%27s_Game_of_Life
 """
-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import List
-
 from PIL import Image
 
 # Define glider example
@@ -25,7 +22,7 @@ GLIDER = [
 BLINKER = [[0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 0]]
 
 
-def new_generation(cells: List[List[int]]) -> List[List[int]]:
+def new_generation(cells: list[list[int]]) -> list[list[int]]:
     """
     Generates the next generation for a given state of Conway's Game of Life.
     >>> new_generation(BLINKER)
@@ -73,7 +70,7 @@ def new_generation(cells: List[List[int]]) -> List[List[int]]:
     return next_generation
 
 
-def generate_images(cells: list[list[int]], frames) -> list[Image.Image]:
+def generate_images(cells: list[list[int]], frames: int) -> list[Image.Image]:
     """
     Generates a list of images of subsequent Game of Life states.
     """

cellular_automata/game_of_life.py

@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ Python:
   - 3.5
 
 Usage:
-  - $python3 game_o_life <canvas_size:int>
+  - $python3 game_of_life <canvas_size:int>
 
 Game-Of-Life Rules:
 
@@ -34,25 +34,26 @@ import numpy as np
 from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.colors import ListedColormap
 
-usage_doc = "Usage of script: script_nama <size_of_canvas:int>"
+usage_doc = "Usage of script: script_name <size_of_canvas:int>"
 
 choice = [0] * 100 + [1] * 10
 random.shuffle(choice)
 
 
-def create_canvas(size):
+def create_canvas(size: int) -> list[list[bool]]:
     canvas = [[False for i in range(size)] for j in range(size)]
     return canvas
 
 
-def seed(canvas):
+def seed(canvas: list[list[bool]]) -> None:
     for i, row in enumerate(canvas):
         for j, _ in enumerate(row):
             canvas[i][j] = bool(random.getrandbits(1))
 
 
-def run(canvas):
-    """This  function runs the rules of game through all points, and changes their
+def run(canvas: list[list[bool]]) -> list[list[bool]]:
+    """
+    This function runs the rules of game through all points, and changes their
     status accordingly.(in the same canvas)
     @Args:
     --
@@ -60,23 +61,20 @@ def run(canvas):
 
     @returns:
     --
-    None
+    canvas of population after one step
     """
-    canvas = np.array(canvas)
-    next_gen_canvas = np.array(create_canvas(canvas.shape[0]))
-    for r, row in enumerate(canvas):
+    current_canvas = np.array(canvas)
+    next_gen_canvas = np.array(create_canvas(current_canvas.shape[0]))
+    for r, row in enumerate(current_canvas):
         for c, pt in enumerate(row):
-            # print(r-1,r+2,c-1,c+2)
             next_gen_canvas[r][c] = __judge_point(
-                pt, canvas[r - 1 : r + 2, c - 1 : c + 2]
+                pt, current_canvas[r - 1 : r + 2, c - 1 : c + 2]
             )
 
-    canvas = next_gen_canvas
-    del next_gen_canvas  # cleaning memory as we move on.
-    return canvas.tolist()
+    return next_gen_canvas.tolist()
 
 
-def __judge_point(pt, neighbours):
+def __judge_point(pt: bool, neighbours: list[list[bool]]) -> bool:
     dead = 0
     alive = 0
     # finding dead or alive neighbours count.
@@ -98,7 +96,7 @@ def __judge_point(pt, neighbours):
     if pt:
         if alive < 2:
             state = False
-        elif alive == 2 or alive == 3:
+        elif alive in {2, 3}:
             state = True
         elif alive > 3:
             state = False

cellular_automata/nagel_schrekenberg.py

@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+"""
+Simulate the evolution of a highway with only one road that is a loop.
+The highway is divided in cells, each cell can have at most one car in it.
+The highway is a loop so when a car comes to one end, it will come out on the other.
+Each car is represented by its speed (from 0 to 5).
+
+Some information about speed:
+    -1 means that the cell on the highway is empty
+    0 to 5 are the speed of the cars with 0 being the lowest and 5 the highest
+
+highway: list[int]  Where every position and speed of every car will be stored
+probability         The probability that a driver will slow down
+initial_speed       The speed of the cars a the start
+frequency           How many cells there are between two cars at the start
+max_speed           The maximum speed a car can go to
+number_of_cells     How many cell are there in the highway
+number_of_update    How many times will the position be updated
+
+More information here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagel%E2%80%93Schreckenberg_model
+
+Examples for doctest:
+>>> simulate(construct_highway(6, 3, 0), 2, 0, 2)
+[[0, -1, -1, 0, -1, -1], [-1, 1, -1, -1, 1, -1], [-1, -1, 1, -1, -1, 1]]
+>>> simulate(construct_highway(5, 2, -2), 3, 0, 2)
+[[0, -1, 0, -1, 0], [0, -1, 0, -1, -1], [0, -1, -1, 1, -1], [-1, 1, -1, 0, -1]]
+"""
+from random import randint, random
+
+
+def construct_highway(
+    number_of_cells: int,
+    frequency: int,
+    initial_speed: int,
+    random_frequency: bool = False,
+    random_speed: bool = False,
+    max_speed: int = 5,
+) -> list:
+    """
+    Build the highway following the parameters given
+    >>> construct_highway(10, 2, 6)
+    [[6, -1, 6, -1, 6, -1, 6, -1, 6, -1]]
+    >>> construct_highway(10, 10, 2)
+    [[2, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1]]
+    """
+
+    highway = [[-1] * number_of_cells]  # Create a highway without any car
+    i = 0
+    initial_speed = max(initial_speed, 0)
+    while i < number_of_cells:
+        highway[0][i] = (
+            randint(0, max_speed) if random_speed else initial_speed
+        )  # Place the cars
+        i += (
+            randint(1, max_speed * 2) if random_frequency else frequency
+        )  # Arbitrary number, may need tuning
+    return highway
+
+
+def get_distance(highway_now: list, car_index: int) -> int:
+    """
+    Get the distance between a car (at index car_index) and the next car
+    >>> get_distance([6, -1, 6, -1, 6], 2)
+    1
+    >>> get_distance([2, -1, -1, -1, 3, 1, 0, 1, 3, 2], 0)
+    3
+    >>> get_distance([-1, -1, -1, -1, 2, -1, -1, -1, 3], -1)
+    4
+    """
+
+    distance = 0
+    cells = highway_now[car_index + 1 :]
+    for cell in range(len(cells)):  # May need a better name for this
+        if cells[cell] != -1:  # If the cell is not empty then
+            return distance  # we have the distance we wanted
+        distance += 1
+    # Here if the car is near the end of the highway
+    return distance + get_distance(highway_now, -1)
+
+
+def update(highway_now: list, probability: float, max_speed: int) -> list:
+    """
+    Update the speed of the cars
+    >>> update([-1, -1, -1, -1, -1, 2, -1, -1, -1, -1, 3], 0.0, 5)
+    [-1, -1, -1, -1, -1, 3, -1, -1, -1, -1, 4]
+    >>> update([-1, -1, 2, -1, -1, -1, -1, 3], 0.0, 5)
+    [-1, -1, 3, -1, -1, -1, -1, 1]
+    """
+
+    number_of_cells = len(highway_now)
+    # Beforce calculations, the highway is empty
+    next_highway = [-1] * number_of_cells
+
+    for car_index in range(number_of_cells):
+        if highway_now[car_index] != -1:
+            # Add 1 to the current speed of the car and cap the speed
+            next_highway[car_index] = min(highway_now[car_index] + 1, max_speed)
+            # Number of empty cell before the next car
+            dn = get_distance(highway_now, car_index) - 1
+            # We can't have the car causing an accident
+            next_highway[car_index] = min(next_highway[car_index], dn)
+            if random() < probability:
+                # Randomly, a driver will slow down
+                next_highway[car_index] = max(next_highway[car_index] - 1, 0)
+    return next_highway
+
+
+def simulate(
+    highway: list, number_of_update: int, probability: float, max_speed: int
+) -> list:
+    """
+    The main function, it will simulate the evolution of the highway
+    >>> simulate([[-1, 2, -1, -1, -1, 3]], 2, 0.0, 3)
+    [[-1, 2, -1, -1, -1, 3], [-1, -1, -1, 2, -1, 0], [1, -1, -1, 0, -1, -1]]
+    >>> simulate([[-1, 2, -1, 3]], 4, 0.0, 3)
+    [[-1, 2, -1, 3], [-1, 0, -1, 0], [-1, 0, -1, 0], [-1, 0, -1, 0], [-1, 0, -1, 0]]
+    """
+
+    number_of_cells = len(highway[0])
+
+    for i in range(number_of_update):
+        next_speeds_calculated = update(highway[i], probability, max_speed)
+        real_next_speeds = [-1] * number_of_cells
+
+        for car_index in range(number_of_cells):
+            speed = next_speeds_calculated[car_index]
+            if speed != -1:
+                # Change the position based on the speed (with % to create the loop)
+                index = (car_index + speed) % number_of_cells
+                # Commit the change of position
+                real_next_speeds[index] = speed
+        highway.append(real_next_speeds)
+
+    return highway
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

ciphers/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# Ciphers
+
+Ciphers are used to protect data from people that are not allowed to have it. They are everywhere on the internet to protect your connections.
+
+* <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cipher>
+* <http://practicalcryptography.com/ciphers/>
+* <https://practicalcryptography.com/ciphers/classical-era/>

ciphers/a1z26.py

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ corresponding to the character's position in the alphabet.
 https://www.dcode.fr/letter-number-cipher
 http://bestcodes.weebly.com/a1z26.html
 """
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 
 def encode(plain: str) -> list[int]:

ciphers/affine_cipher.py

@@ -9,26 +9,26 @@ SYMBOLS = (
 )
 
 
-def check_keys(keyA: int, keyB: int, mode: str) -> None:
+def check_keys(key_a: int, key_b: int, mode: str) -> None:
     if mode == "encrypt":
-        if keyA == 1:
+        if key_a == 1:
             sys.exit(
                 "The affine cipher becomes weak when key "
                 "A is set to 1. Choose different key"
             )
-        if keyB == 0:
+        if key_b == 0:
             sys.exit(
                 "The affine cipher becomes weak when key "
                 "B is set to 0. Choose different key"
             )
-    if keyA < 0 or keyB < 0 or keyB > len(SYMBOLS) - 1:
+    if key_a < 0 or key_b < 0 or key_b > len(SYMBOLS) - 1:
         sys.exit(
             "Key A must be greater than 0 and key B must "
             f"be between 0 and {len(SYMBOLS) - 1}."
         )
-    if cryptomath.gcd(keyA, len(SYMBOLS)) != 1:
+    if cryptomath.gcd(key_a, len(SYMBOLS)) != 1:
         sys.exit(
-            f"Key A {keyA} and the symbol set size {len(SYMBOLS)} "
+            f"Key A {key_a} and the symbol set size {len(SYMBOLS)} "
             "are not relatively prime. Choose a different key."
         )
 
@@ -39,16 +39,16 @@ def encrypt_message(key: int, message: str) -> str:
     ...                       'substitution cipher.')
     'VL}p MM{I}p~{HL}Gp{vp pFsH}pxMpyxIx JHL O}F{~pvuOvF{FuF{xIp~{HL}Gi'
     """
-    keyA, keyB = divmod(key, len(SYMBOLS))
-    check_keys(keyA, keyB, "encrypt")
-    cipherText = ""
+    key_a, key_b = divmod(key, len(SYMBOLS))
+    check_keys(key_a, key_b, "encrypt")
+    cipher_text = ""
     for symbol in message:
         if symbol in SYMBOLS:
-            symIndex = SYMBOLS.find(symbol)
-            cipherText += SYMBOLS[(symIndex * keyA + keyB) % len(SYMBOLS)]
+            sym_index = SYMBOLS.find(symbol)
+            cipher_text += SYMBOLS[(sym_index * key_a + key_b) % len(SYMBOLS)]
         else:
-            cipherText += symbol
-    return cipherText
+            cipher_text += symbol
+    return cipher_text
 
 
 def decrypt_message(key: int, message: str) -> str:
@@ -57,25 +57,27 @@ def decrypt_message(key: int, message: str) -> str:
     ...                       '{xIp~{HL}Gi')
     'The affine cipher is a type of monoalphabetic substitution cipher.'
     """
-    keyA, keyB = divmod(key, len(SYMBOLS))
-    check_keys(keyA, keyB, "decrypt")
-    plainText = ""
-    modInverseOfkeyA = cryptomath.find_mod_inverse(keyA, len(SYMBOLS))
+    key_a, key_b = divmod(key, len(SYMBOLS))
+    check_keys(key_a, key_b, "decrypt")
+    plain_text = ""
+    mod_inverse_of_key_a = cryptomath.find_mod_inverse(key_a, len(SYMBOLS))
     for symbol in message:
         if symbol in SYMBOLS:
-            symIndex = SYMBOLS.find(symbol)
-            plainText += SYMBOLS[(symIndex - keyB) * modInverseOfkeyA % len(SYMBOLS)]
+            sym_index = SYMBOLS.find(symbol)
+            plain_text += SYMBOLS[
+                (sym_index - key_b) * mod_inverse_of_key_a % len(SYMBOLS)
+            ]
         else:
-            plainText += symbol
-    return plainText
+            plain_text += symbol
+    return plain_text
 
 
 def get_random_key() -> int:
     while True:
-        keyA = random.randint(2, len(SYMBOLS))
-        keyB = random.randint(2, len(SYMBOLS))
-        if cryptomath.gcd(keyA, len(SYMBOLS)) == 1 and keyB % len(SYMBOLS) != 0:
-            return keyA * len(SYMBOLS) + keyB
+        key_b = random.randint(2, len(SYMBOLS))
+        key_b = random.randint(2, len(SYMBOLS))
+        if cryptomath.gcd(key_b, len(SYMBOLS)) == 1 and key_b % len(SYMBOLS) != 0:
+            return key_b * len(SYMBOLS) + key_b
 
 
 def main() -> None:

ciphers/atbash.py

@@ -38,26 +38,13 @@ def atbash(sequence: str) -> str:
 
 
 def benchmark() -> None:
-    """Let's benchmark them side-by-side..."""
+    """Let's benchmark our functions side-by-side..."""
     from timeit import timeit
 
     print("Running performance benchmarks...")
-    print(
-        "> atbash_slow()",
-        timeit(
-            "atbash_slow(printable)",
-            setup="from string import printable ; from __main__ import atbash_slow",
-        ),
-        "seconds",
-    )
-    print(
-        ">      atbash()",
-        timeit(
-            "atbash(printable)",
-            setup="from string import printable ; from __main__ import atbash",
-        ),
-        "seconds",
-    )
+    setup = "from string import printable ; from __main__ import atbash, atbash_slow"
+    print(f"> atbash_slow(): {timeit('atbash_slow(printable)', setup=setup)} seconds")
+    print(f">      atbash(): {timeit('atbash(printable)', setup=setup)} seconds")
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":

ciphers/autokey.py

@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+"""
+https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autokey_cipher
+An autokey cipher (also known as the autoclave cipher) is a cipher that
+incorporates the message (the plaintext) into the key.
+The key is generated from the message in some automated fashion,
+sometimes by selecting certain letters from the text or, more commonly,
+by adding a short primer key to the front of the message.
+"""
+
+
+def encrypt(plaintext: str, key: str) -> str:
+    """
+    Encrypt a given plaintext (string) and key (string), returning the
+    encrypted ciphertext.
+    >>> encrypt("hello world", "coffee")
+    'jsqqs avvwo'
+    >>> encrypt("coffee is good as python", "TheAlgorithms")
+    'vvjfpk wj ohvp su ddylsv'
+    >>> encrypt("coffee is good as python", 2)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    TypeError: key must be a string
+    >>> encrypt("", "TheAlgorithms")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: plaintext is empty
+    """
+    if not isinstance(plaintext, str):
+        raise TypeError("plaintext must be a string")
+    if not isinstance(key, str):
+        raise TypeError("key must be a string")
+
+    if not plaintext:
+        raise ValueError("plaintext is empty")
+    if not key:
+        raise ValueError("key is empty")
+
+    key += plaintext
+    plaintext = plaintext.lower()
+    key = key.lower()
+    plaintext_iterator = 0
+    key_iterator = 0
+    ciphertext = ""
+    while plaintext_iterator < len(plaintext):
+        if (
+            ord(plaintext[plaintext_iterator]) < 97
+            or ord(plaintext[plaintext_iterator]) > 122
+        ):
+            ciphertext += plaintext[plaintext_iterator]
+            plaintext_iterator += 1
+        elif ord(key[key_iterator]) < 97 or ord(key[key_iterator]) > 122:
+            key_iterator += 1
+        else:
+            ciphertext += chr(
+                (
+                    (ord(plaintext[plaintext_iterator]) - 97 + ord(key[key_iterator]))
+                    - 97
+                )
+                % 26
+                + 97
+            )
+            key_iterator += 1
+            plaintext_iterator += 1
+    return ciphertext
+
+
+def decrypt(ciphertext: str, key: str) -> str:
+    """
+    Decrypt a given ciphertext (string) and key (string), returning the decrypted
+    ciphertext.
+    >>> decrypt("jsqqs avvwo", "coffee")
+    'hello world'
+    >>> decrypt("vvjfpk wj ohvp su ddylsv", "TheAlgorithms")
+    'coffee is good as python'
+    >>> decrypt("vvjfpk wj ohvp su ddylsv", "")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    ValueError: key is empty
+    >>> decrypt(527.26, "TheAlgorithms")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    TypeError: ciphertext must be a string
+    """
+    if not isinstance(ciphertext, str):
+        raise TypeError("ciphertext must be a string")
+    if not isinstance(key, str):
+        raise TypeError("key must be a string")
+
+    if not ciphertext:
+        raise ValueError("ciphertext is empty")
+    if not key:
+        raise ValueError("key is empty")
+
+    key = key.lower()
+    ciphertext_iterator = 0
+    key_iterator = 0
+    plaintext = ""
+    while ciphertext_iterator < len(ciphertext):
+        if (
+            ord(ciphertext[ciphertext_iterator]) < 97
+            or ord(ciphertext[ciphertext_iterator]) > 122
+        ):
+            plaintext += ciphertext[ciphertext_iterator]
+        else:
+            plaintext += chr(
+                (ord(ciphertext[ciphertext_iterator]) - ord(key[key_iterator])) % 26
+                + 97
+            )
+            key += chr(
+                (ord(ciphertext[ciphertext_iterator]) - ord(key[key_iterator])) % 26
+                + 97
+            )
+            key_iterator += 1
+        ciphertext_iterator += 1
+    return plaintext
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()
+    operation = int(input("Type 1 to encrypt or 2 to decrypt:"))
+    if operation == 1:
+        plaintext = input("Typeplaintext to be encrypted:\n")
+        key = input("Type the key:\n")
+        print(encrypt(plaintext, key))
+    elif operation == 2:
+        ciphertext = input("Type the ciphertext to be decrypted:\n")
+        key = input("Type the key:\n")
+        print(decrypt(ciphertext, key))
+    decrypt("jsqqs avvwo", "coffee")

ciphers/baconian_cipher.py

@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+"""
+Program to encode and decode Baconian or Bacon's Cipher
+Wikipedia reference : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacon%27s_cipher
+"""
+
+encode_dict = {
+    "a": "AAAAA",
+    "b": "AAAAB",
+    "c": "AAABA",
+    "d": "AAABB",
+    "e": "AABAA",
+    "f": "AABAB",
+    "g": "AABBA",
+    "h": "AABBB",
+    "i": "ABAAA",
+    "j": "BBBAA",
+    "k": "ABAAB",
+    "l": "ABABA",
+    "m": "ABABB",
+    "n": "ABBAA",
+    "o": "ABBAB",
+    "p": "ABBBA",
+    "q": "ABBBB",
+    "r": "BAAAA",
+    "s": "BAAAB",
+    "t": "BAABA",
+    "u": "BAABB",
+    "v": "BBBAB",
+    "w": "BABAA",
+    "x": "BABAB",
+    "y": "BABBA",
+    "z": "BABBB",
+    " ": " ",
+}
+
+
+decode_dict = {value: key for key, value in encode_dict.items()}
+
+
+def encode(word: str) -> str:
+    """
+    Encodes to Baconian cipher
+
+    >>> encode("hello")
+    'AABBBAABAAABABAABABAABBAB'
+    >>> encode("hello world")
+    'AABBBAABAAABABAABABAABBAB BABAAABBABBAAAAABABAAAABB'
+    >>> encode("hello world!")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    Exception: encode() accepts only letters of the alphabet and spaces
+    """
+    encoded = ""
+    for letter in word.lower():
+        if letter.isalpha() or letter == " ":
+            encoded += encode_dict[letter]
+        else:
+            raise Exception("encode() accepts only letters of the alphabet and spaces")
+    return encoded
+
+
+def decode(coded: str) -> str:
+    """
+    Decodes from Baconian cipher
+
+    >>> decode("AABBBAABAAABABAABABAABBAB BABAAABBABBAAAAABABAAAABB")
+    'hello world'
+    >>> decode("AABBBAABAAABABAABABAABBAB")
+    'hello'
+    >>> decode("AABBBAABAAABABAABABAABBAB BABAAABBABBAAAAABABAAAABB!")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    Exception: decode() accepts only 'A', 'B' and spaces
+    """
+    if set(coded) - {"A", "B", " "} != set():
+        raise Exception("decode() accepts only 'A', 'B' and spaces")
+    decoded = ""
+    for word in coded.split():
+        while len(word) != 0:
+            decoded += decode_dict[word[:5]]
+            word = word[5:]
+        decoded += " "
+    return decoded.strip()
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    from doctest import testmod
+
+    testmod()

ciphers/base16.py

@@ -1,19 +1,63 @@
-import base64
-
-
-def encode_to_b16(inp: str) -> bytes:
+def base16_encode(data: bytes) -> str:
     """
-    Encodes a given utf-8 string into base-16.
-    >>> encode_to_b16('Hello World!')
-    b'48656C6C6F20576F726C6421'
-    >>> encode_to_b16('HELLO WORLD!')
-    b'48454C4C4F20574F524C4421'
-    >>> encode_to_b16('')
+    Encodes the given bytes into base16.
+
+    >>> base16_encode(b'Hello World!')
+    '48656C6C6F20576F726C6421'
+    >>> base16_encode(b'HELLO WORLD!')
+    '48454C4C4F20574F524C4421'
+    >>> base16_encode(b'')
+    ''
+    """
+    # Turn the data into a list of integers (where each integer is a byte),
+    # Then turn each byte into its hexadecimal representation, make sure
+    # it is uppercase, and then join everything together and return it.
+    return "".join([hex(byte)[2:].zfill(2).upper() for byte in list(data)])
+
+
+def base16_decode(data: str) -> bytes:
+    """
+    Decodes the given base16 encoded data into bytes.
+
+    >>> base16_decode('48656C6C6F20576F726C6421')
+    b'Hello World!'
+    >>> base16_decode('48454C4C4F20574F524C4421')
+    b'HELLO WORLD!'
+    >>> base16_decode('')
     b''
+    >>> base16_decode('486')
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    ValueError: Base16 encoded data is invalid:
+    Data does not have an even number of hex digits.
+    >>> base16_decode('48656c6c6f20576f726c6421')
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    ValueError: Base16 encoded data is invalid:
+    Data is not uppercase hex or it contains invalid characters.
+    >>> base16_decode('This is not base64 encoded data.')
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    ValueError: Base16 encoded data is invalid:
+    Data is not uppercase hex or it contains invalid characters.
     """
-    encoded = inp.encode("utf-8")  # encoded the input (we need a bytes like object)
-    b16encoded = base64.b16encode(encoded)  # b16encoded the encoded string
-    return b16encoded
+    # Check data validity, following RFC3548
+    # https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3548.txt
+    if (len(data) % 2) != 0:
+        raise ValueError(
+            """Base16 encoded data is invalid:
+Data does not have an even number of hex digits."""
+        )
+    # Check the character set - the standard base16 alphabet
+    # is uppercase according to RFC3548 section 6
+    if not set(data) <= set("0123456789ABCDEF"):
+        raise ValueError(
+            """Base16 encoded data is invalid:
+Data is not uppercase hex or it contains invalid characters."""
+        )
+    # For every two hexadecimal digits (= a byte), turn it into an integer.
+    # Then, string the result together into bytes, and return it.
+    return bytes(int(data[i] + data[i + 1], 16) for i in range(0, len(data), 2))
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":

ciphers/base32.py

@@ -1,13 +1,42 @@
 import base64
 
 
-def main() -> None:
-    inp = input("->")
-    encoded = inp.encode("utf-8")  # encoded the input (we need a bytes like object)
-    b32encoded = base64.b32encode(encoded)  # b32encoded the encoded string
-    print(b32encoded)
-    print(base64.b32decode(b32encoded).decode("utf-8"))  # decoded it
+def base32_encode(string: str) -> bytes:
+    """
+    Encodes a given string to base32, returning a bytes-like object
+    >>> base32_encode("Hello World!")
+    b'JBSWY3DPEBLW64TMMQQQ===='
+    >>> base32_encode("123456")
+    b'GEZDGNBVGY======'
+    >>> base32_encode("some long complex string")
+    b'ONXW2ZJANRXW4ZZAMNXW24DMMV4CA43UOJUW4ZY='
+    """
+
+    # encoded the input (we need a bytes like object)
+    # then, b32encoded the bytes-like object
+    return base64.b32encode(string.encode("utf-8"))
+
+
+def base32_decode(encoded_bytes: bytes) -> str:
+    """
+    Decodes a given bytes-like object to a string, returning a string
+    >>> base32_decode(b'JBSWY3DPEBLW64TMMQQQ====')
+    'Hello World!'
+    >>> base32_decode(b'GEZDGNBVGY======')
+    '123456'
+    >>> base32_decode(b'ONXW2ZJANRXW4ZZAMNXW24DMMV4CA43UOJUW4ZY=')
+    'some long complex string'
+    """
+
+    # decode the bytes from base32
+    # then, decode the bytes-like object to return as a string
+    return base64.b32decode(encoded_bytes).decode("utf-8")
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":
-    main()
+    test = "Hello World!"
+    encoded = base32_encode(test)
+    print(encoded)
+
+    decoded = base32_decode(encoded)
+    print(decoded)

ciphers/base64.py

@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ def base64_encode(data: bytes) -> bytes:
     The data is first transformed to binary and appended with binary digits so that its
     length becomes a multiple of 6, then each 6 binary digits will match a character in
     the B64_CHARSET string. The number of appended binary digits would later determine
-    how many "=" sign should be added, the padding.
+    how many "=" signs should be added, the padding.
     For every 2 binary digits added, a "=" sign is added in the output.
     We can add any binary digits to make it a multiple of 6, for instance, consider the
     following example:
@@ -34,9 +34,8 @@ def base64_encode(data: bytes) -> bytes:
     """
     # Make sure the supplied data is a bytes-like object
     if not isinstance(data, bytes):
-        raise TypeError(
-            f"a bytes-like object is required, not '{data.__class__.__name__}'"
-        )
+        msg = f"a bytes-like object is required, not '{data.__class__.__name__}'"
+        raise TypeError(msg)
 
     binary_stream = "".join(bin(byte)[2:].zfill(8) for byte in data)
 
@@ -88,10 +87,11 @@ def base64_decode(encoded_data: str) -> bytes:
     """
     # Make sure encoded_data is either a string or a bytes-like object
     if not isinstance(encoded_data, bytes) and not isinstance(encoded_data, str):
-        raise TypeError(
-            "argument should be a bytes-like object or ASCII string, not "
-            f"'{encoded_data.__class__.__name__}'"
+        msg = (
+            "argument should be a bytes-like object or ASCII string, "
+            f"not '{encoded_data.__class__.__name__}'"
         )
+        raise TypeError(msg)
 
     # In case encoded_data is a bytes-like object, make sure it contains only
     # ASCII characters so we convert it to a string object

ciphers/base85.py

@@ -1,13 +1,33 @@
 import base64
 
 
-def main() -> None:
-    inp = input("->")
-    encoded = inp.encode("utf-8")  # encoded the input (we need a bytes like object)
-    a85encoded = base64.a85encode(encoded)  # a85encoded the encoded string
-    print(a85encoded)
-    print(base64.a85decode(a85encoded).decode("utf-8"))  # decoded it
+def base85_encode(string: str) -> bytes:
+    """
+    >>> base85_encode("")
+    b''
+    >>> base85_encode("12345")
+    b'0etOA2#'
+    >>> base85_encode("base 85")
+    b'@UX=h+?24'
+    """
+    # encoded the input to a bytes-like object and then a85encode that
+    return base64.a85encode(string.encode("utf-8"))
+
+
+def base85_decode(a85encoded: bytes) -> str:
+    """
+    >>> base85_decode(b"")
+    ''
+    >>> base85_decode(b"0etOA2#")
+    '12345'
+    >>> base85_decode(b"@UX=h+?24")
+    'base 85'
+    """
+    # a85decode the input into bytes and decode that into a human readable string
+    return base64.a85decode(a85encoded).decode("utf-8")
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":
-    main()
+    import doctest
+
+    doctest.testmod()

ciphers/beaufort_cipher.py

@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ Author: Mohit Radadiya
 from string import ascii_uppercase
 
 dict1 = {char: i for i, char in enumerate(ascii_uppercase)}
-dict2 = {i: char for i, char in enumerate(ascii_uppercase)}
+dict2 = dict(enumerate(ascii_uppercase))
 
 
 # This function generates the key in

ciphers/bifid.py

@@ -0,0 +1,111 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+
+"""
+The Bifid Cipher uses a Polybius Square to encipher a message in a way that
+makes it fairly difficult to decipher without knowing the secret.
+
+https://www.braingle.com/brainteasers/codes/bifid.php
+"""
+
+import numpy as np
+
+SQUARE = [
+    ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"],
+    ["f", "g", "h", "i", "k"],
+    ["l", "m", "n", "o", "p"],
+    ["q", "r", "s", "t", "u"],
+    ["v", "w", "x", "y", "z"],
+]
+
+
+class BifidCipher:
+    def __init__(self) -> None:
+        self.SQUARE = np.array(SQUARE)
+
+    def letter_to_numbers(self, letter: str) -> np.ndarray:
+        """
+        Return the pair of numbers that represents the given letter in the
+        polybius square
+
+        >>> np.array_equal(BifidCipher().letter_to_numbers('a'), [1,1])
+        True
+
+        >>> np.array_equal(BifidCipher().letter_to_numbers('u'), [4,5])
+        True
+        """
+        index1, index2 = np.where(letter == self.SQUARE)
+        indexes = np.concatenate([index1 + 1, index2 + 1])
+        return indexes
+
+    def numbers_to_letter(self, index1: int, index2: int) -> str:
+        """
+        Return the letter corresponding to the position [index1, index2] in
+        the polybius square
+
+        >>> BifidCipher().numbers_to_letter(4, 5) == "u"
+        True
+
+        >>> BifidCipher().numbers_to_letter(1, 1) == "a"
+        True
+        """
+        letter = self.SQUARE[index1 - 1, index2 - 1]
+        return letter
+
+    def encode(self, message: str) -> str:
+        """
+        Return the encoded version of message according to the polybius cipher
+
+        >>> BifidCipher().encode('testmessage') == 'qtltbdxrxlk'
+        True
+
+        >>> BifidCipher().encode('Test Message') == 'qtltbdxrxlk'
+        True
+
+        >>> BifidCipher().encode('test j') == BifidCipher().encode('test i')
+        True
+        """
+        message = message.lower()
+        message = message.replace(" ", "")
+        message = message.replace("j", "i")
+
+        first_step = np.empty((2, len(message)))
+        for letter_index in range(len(message)):
+            numbers = self.letter_to_numbers(message[letter_index])
+
+            first_step[0, letter_index] = numbers[0]
+            first_step[1, letter_index] = numbers[1]
+
+        second_step = first_step.reshape(2 * len(message))
+        encoded_message = ""
+        for numbers_index in range(len(message)):
+            index1 = int(second_step[numbers_index * 2])
+            index2 = int(second_step[(numbers_index * 2) + 1])
+            letter = self.numbers_to_letter(index1, index2)
+            encoded_message = encoded_message + letter
+
+        return encoded_message
+
+    def decode(self, message: str) -> str:
+        """
+        Return the decoded version of message according to the polybius cipher
+
+        >>> BifidCipher().decode('qtltbdxrxlk') == 'testmessage'
+        True
+        """
+        message = message.lower()
+        message.replace(" ", "")
+        first_step = np.empty(2 * len(message))
+        for letter_index in range(len(message)):
+            numbers = self.letter_to_numbers(message[letter_index])
+            first_step[letter_index * 2] = numbers[0]
+            first_step[letter_index * 2 + 1] = numbers[1]
+
+        second_step = first_step.reshape((2, len(message)))
+        decoded_message = ""
+        for numbers_index in range(len(message)):
+            index1 = int(second_step[0, numbers_index])
+            index2 = int(second_step[1, numbers_index])
+            letter = self.numbers_to_letter(index1, index2)
+            decoded_message = decoded_message + letter
+
+        return decoded_message